'Ilm is commonly translated in English as "knowledge". Nevertheless, its interpretation can vary based on the specific context. It can encompass meanings such as "religious knowledge," "learning," or "science(s)," particularly when used in its plural form, "'ulum." According to the
Encyclopaedia of Islam, "Ilm" is understood as the antithesis of "
djahl," which means "ignorance." The word "ilm" is the most comprehensive term for "knowledge" in Arabic. While it is sometimes considered synonymous with "
marifa" and "shuūr," there are notable distinctions in their usage. The verb associated with "ilm" takes one or two accusatives, indicating knowledge of a specific thing or proposition. On the other hand, "marifa" refers to acquiring knowledge through experience or reflection and implies prior ignorance. "Shuūr" denotes "perception". A "shāir" is a "perceiver," "feeler," and subsequently a "poet." This development created a clear distinction between the "ālim" and the "ārif" in another aspect. The "ārif" refers to the mystical knower who attains knowledge through immediate experience and vision, bearing similarities to the concept of a
gnostic.
Ovamir Anjum, however, disputes the above views, saying that "The differentiation between ‘ilm as exoteric knowledge and ma’rifa as esoteric knowledge or gnosis had no etymological basis in earlier usage." He states that "In fact, the Qur’anic usage resists such a distinction, since it refers to the intimate human knowledge of God that produces a profound sentimental effect as nothing but 'ilm": “Truly, only the possessors of ‘ilm fear God” (Q. 35:28)." Earlier, the term "ilm" was used to denote knowledge of specific and definite things. However, over time, the meaning of "ilm" expanded to include "science," and "al-ulūm" came to refer to "the sciences" in a broader sense. As a result, the term "ālim" (ulamā) began to be used to describe a scholar in a general sense, particularly one who engages in intellectual processes. This shift in meaning has faced strong criticism from
Ghazālī in his work
Iḥyā. Ghazālī strongly condemns the application of praises originally attributed to
Allah being used to describe dialecticians and canon lawyers (
fuḳahā). Subsequently, when "ilm" became intertwined with
philosophy, it had to conform to the framework established by scholastic theologians known as the
mutakallimūn. They incorporated it into the
Aristotelian system of predicaments (al-maḳūlāt), assigning it a place within that framework.
Franz Rosenthal stated that "'ilm is Islam". Among the definitions of 'ilm (knowledge) compiled by Franz Rosenthal, Bruce Fudge mentions the following:
Louay M. Safi states that "Classical Muslim scholars defined knowledge ('ilm) as "the knowledge of the thing (shay') as it exists in itself". This definition can be traced back to a time when the Mu'tazilah were regarded as authorities in the field of
kalām (Islamic theology).
Al-Baqillani, the prominent proponent of the Ash'ari school of kalām, revised the definition by replacing the term "thing" (shay') with "knowable" (ma'lüm). Early Muslim scholars distinguished between different levels of certainty in knowledge.
Al Farra, for example, categorized knowledge into various degrees, ranging from 'ilm (scientific knowledge) as the highest level of certainty to jahl (ignorance) as the lowest. Scientific knowledge encompassed understanding the essence and intrinsic properties of a "thing" or its true nature. Ignorance, on the other hand, referred to knowledge that contradicted the essence of the thing. Between these two extremes, there were two intermediate levels of knowledge: shakk (
skepticism), which occurred when two opposing interpretations were equally plausible, and zann (probable knowledge), which emerged when one interpretation was considered more likely. According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "ʿilm is inherently religious". He argues that the Quranic revelation, which holds great significance in Islamic knowledge, is primarily characterized by its sacred quality and divine nature. Nasr further emphasizes that God is the creator of both the objects of knowledge and the
human intellect, which is a divine gift enabling individuals to perceive and comprehend those objects of knowledge. ==In the Quran==