Argentina In
Argentina the doctorate () is the highest academic degree. The intention is that candidates produce original contributions in their field knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. A dissertation or thesis is prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director. It is reviewed by a Doctoral Committee composed of examiners external to the program and at least one examiner external to the institution. The degree is conferred after a successful dissertation defence. In 2006, there were approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees. an agency in Argentina's Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.
Australia The
Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) categorizes tertiary qualifications into ten levels that are numbered from one to ten in ascending order of complexity and depth. Of these qualification levels, six are for higher education qualifications and are numbered from five to ten. Research doctorates are typically titled Doctor of Philosophy and they are awarded on the basis of an original and significant contribution to knowledge. Typically, to be eligible to be awarded a higher doctorate a student must have completed a research doctorate at least seven to ten years prior to submitting the research portfolio used to award them a higher doctorate.
Brazil Doctoral candidates are normally required to have a
master's degree in a related field. Exceptions are based on their individual academic merit. A second and a third foreign language are other common requirements, although the requirements regarding proficiency commonly are not strict. The admissions process varies by institution. Some require candidates to take tests while others base admissions on a
research proposal application and interview only. In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant. Requirements usually include satisfactory performance in advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam and submitting a thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge. The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external. After completion, which normally consumes 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of
Doutor (Doctor) followed by the main area of specialization, e.g.
Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws),
Doutor em Ciências da Computação (Doctor of Computer Sciences),
Doutor em Filosofia (Doctor of Philosophy),
Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics),
Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering) or
Doutor em Medicina (Doctor of Medicine). The generic title of
Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc.) All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free (mandated by the
Brazilian constitution). Some graduate students are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq (
Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico) and CAPES (
Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior). Personal scholarships are provided by the various FAP's (
Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa) at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of
São Paulo, FAPERJ in the state of
Rio de Janeiro and FAPEMIG in the state of
Minas Gerais. Competition for graduate financial aid is intense and most scholarships support at most 2 years of master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies. The normal monthly
stipend for doctoral students in Brazil is between US$500 and $1000. A degree of
Doutor usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to a US
assistant professor. Progression to full professorship, known as
Professor Titular, requires that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes additional years. In the federal university system, doctors who are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to the rank of associate professor, then become eligible to take the competitive exam for vacant full professorships. In São Paulo state universities, associate professorships and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship are conditioned on the qualification of and require, in addition to a doctorate, a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications, a public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and a written exam. In recent years some initiatives as jointly supervised doctorates (e.g. "cotutelles") have become increasingly common in the country, as part of the country's efforts to open its universities to international students.
Denmark Denmark offers two types of "doctorate"-like degrees: • A three-year ph.d. degree program, which replaced the equivalent
licentiat in 1992, and does not grant the holder the right to the title
dr. or
doktor. At the same time, a minor, two-year research training program, leading to a title of
"magister", was phased out to meet the international standards of the
Bologna Process. • A 'full' doctor's degree (e.g.
dr.phil.,
Doctor Philosophiae, for humanistic and STEM subjects) – the higher doctorate – introduced in 1479. The second part of the title communicates the field of study – e.g.
dr.scient (in the sciences),
dr.jur (in law),
dr.theol (in
theology). To earn an M.D. in a science specialty, one must have a master's degree (M.Sc.) (or two diplomas before the introduction of the M.Sc. degree in Egypt) before applying. The M.D. degree involves courses in the field and defending a dissertation. It takes on average three to five years. Many postgraduate medical and surgical specialties students earn a doctorate. After finishing a 6-year medical school and one-year internship (house officer), physicians and surgeons earn the M.B. B.Ch. degree, which is equivalent to a US
MD degree. They can then apply to earn a master's degree or a speciality diploma, then an MD degree in a specialty. The Egyptian M.D. degree is written using the name of one's specialty. For example, M.D. (Geriatrics) means a doctorate in
Geriatrics, which is equivalent to a Ph.D. in Geriatrics.
Finland The Finnish requirement for the entrance into doctoral studies is a master's degree or equivalent. All universities have the right to award doctorates. The
ammattikorkeakoulu institutes (institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called "Universities of Applied Sciences" in English) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees. The student must: • Demonstrate understanding of their field and its meaning, while preparing to use scientific or scholarly study in their field, creating new knowledge. • Obtain a good understanding of development, basic problems and research methods • Obtain such understanding of the general theory of science and letters and such knowledge of neighbouring research fields that they are able to follow the development of these fields. The way to show that these general requirements have been met is to: • Complete graduate coursework. • Demonstrate critical and independent thought • Prepare and publicly defend a dissertation (a
monograph or a
compilation thesis of peer-reviewed articles). In fine arts, the dissertation may be substituted by works and/or performances as accepted by the faculty. Entrance to a doctoral program is available only for holders of a master's degree; there is no honors procedure for recruiting those with only a bachelor's degree. Entrance is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies, where a strict
numerus clausus is applied. Usually, a prospective student discusses their plans with a professor. If the professor agrees to accept the student, the student applies for admission. The professor may recruit students to their group. Formal acceptance does not imply funding. The student must obtain funding either by working in a research unit or through private scholarships. Funding is more available for natural and engineering sciences than in letters. Sometimes, normal work and research activity are combined. Prior to introduction of the Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1,800 hours) of formal coursework. The requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision to individual universities, which may delegate the authority to faculties or individual professors. In Engineering and Science, required coursework varies between 40 and 70
ECTS. The duration of graduate studies varies. It is possible to graduate three years after the master's degree, while much longer periods are not uncommon. The study ends with a dissertation, which must present substantial new scientific/scholarly knowledge. The dissertation can either be a monograph or it an edited collection of 3 to 7 journal articles. Students unable or unwilling to write a dissertation may qualify for a
licentiate degree by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually summarizing one year of research. When the dissertation is ready, the faculty names two expert pre-examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside the university. During the pre-examination process, the student may receive comments on the work and respond with modifications. After the pre-examiners approve, the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for permission to print the thesis. When granting this permission, the faculty names the
opponent for the thesis defence, who must also be an outside expert, with at least a doctorate. In all Finnish universities, long tradition requires that the printed dissertation hang on a cord by a public university noticeboard for at least ten days prior to for the dissertation defence. The doctoral dissertation takes place in public. The opponent and the candidate conduct a formal debate, usually wearing
white tie, under the supervision of the thesis supervisor. Family, friends, colleagues and the members of the research community customarily attend the defence. After a formal entrance, the candidate begins with an approximately 20-minute popular lecture (
lectio praecursoria), that is meant to introduce laymen to the thesis topic. The opponent follows with a short talk on the topic, after which the pair critically discuss the dissertation. The proceedings take two to three hours. At the end the opponent presents their final statement and reveals whether he/she will recommend that the faculty accept it. Any member of the public then has an opportunity to raise questions, although this is rare. Immediately after the defence, the supervisor, the opponent and the candidate drink coffee with the public. Usually, the attendees of the defence are given the printed dissertation. In the evening, the passed candidate hosts a dinner () in honour of the opponent. Usually, the candidate invites their family, colleagues and collaborators. Doctoral graduates are often Doctors of Philosophy (
filosofian tohtori), but many fields retain their traditional titles: Doctor of Medicine (
lääketieteen tohtori), Doctor of Science in technology (
tekniikan tohtori), Doctor of Science in arts (Art and Design), etc. The doctorate is a formal requirement for a docenture or professor's position, although these in practice require
postdoctoral research and further experience. Exceptions may be granted by the university governing board, but this is uncommon, and usually due to other work and expertise considered equivalent.
France History Before 1984 three research doctorates existed in France: the
State doctorate (''doctorat d'État
, "DrE", the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (doctorat de troisième cycle, also called doctorate of specialty, doctorat de spécialité, created in 1954 and shorter than the State doctorate) and the diploma of doctor-engineer (diplôme de docteur-ingénieur'' created in 1923), for technical research. During the first half of the 20th century, following the submission of two theses (primary thesis,
thèse principale, and secondary thesis,
thèse complémentaire) to the Faculty of Letters (in France, "letters" is equivalent to "
humanities") at the
University of Paris, the doctoral candidate was awarded the
Doctorat ès lettres. There was also the less prestigious "university doctorate", '''''doctorat d'université''''', which could be received for the submission of a single thesis. In the 1950s, the
Doctorat ès lettres was renamed to ''Doctorat d'État
. In 1954 (for the sciences) and 1958 (for letters and human sciences), the less demanding doctorat de troisième cycle'' degree was created on the model of the American
Ph.D. with the purpose to lessen what had become an increasingly long period of time between the typical students' completion of their Diplôme d'études supérieures, roughly equivalent to a
Master of Arts, and their ''Doctorat d'État
. Now habilitation is a prerequisite to the title of professor in university (Professeur des universités
) and to the title of Research Director (Directeur de recherche'') in national public research agency such as
CNRS,
INRIA, or
INRAE.
Admission Today, the doctorate (
doctorat) is a research-only degree. It is a national degree and its requirements are fixed by the minister of higher education and research. Only public institutions award the doctorate. It can be awarded in any field of study. The
master's degree is a prerequisite. The normal duration is three years. The writing of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctoral work. While the length of the thesis varies according to the discipline, it is rarely less than 150 pages, and often substantially more. Some 15,000 new doctoral matriculations occur every year and ≈10,000 doctorates are awarded. Doctoral candidates can apply for a three-year fellowship. The most well known is the
Contrat Doctoral (4,000 granted every year with a gross salary of 2300 euros per month ). Since 2002, candidates follow in-service training, but there is no written examination for the doctorate. The candidate has to write a thesis that is read by two external reviewers. The head of the institution decides whether the candidate can defend the thesis, after considering the external reviews. The jury members are designated by the head of the institution. The candidate's supervisor and the external reviewers are generally jury members. The maximum number of jury members is 8. The defense generally lasts 45 minutes in scientific fields, followed by 1 – hours of questions from the jury or other doctors present. The defense and questions are public. The jury then deliberates in private and then declares the candidate admitted or "postponed". The latter is rare. New regulations were set in 2016 and do not award distinctions. The title of doctor (
docteur) can also be used by medical and pharmaceutical practitioners who hold a doctor's State diploma (''diplôme d'État de docteur
, distinct from the doctorat d'État'' mentioned above). The diploma is a first-degree. A guideline with good practices and legal analysis has been published in 2018 by the Association nationale des docteurs (ANDès) and the Confédération des Jeunes Chercheurs (CJC) with funding from the French Ministry of research.
Germany Doctoral degrees in Germany are research doctorates and are awarded by a process called ''''''. Most doctorates are awarded with specific Latin designations for the field of research (except for engineering, where the designation is German), instead of a general name for all fields (such as the
Ph.D.). The most important degrees are: •
Dr. theol. (
theologiae; theology); •
Dr. phil. (
philosophiae; humanities such as philosophy, philology, history, and social sciences such as sociology, political science, or psychology as well); •
Dr. rer. nat. (
rerum naturalium;
natural and
formal sciences, i.e. physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, computer science and information technology, or psychology); •
Dr. iur. (
iuris; law); •
Dr. med. (
medicinae; medicine); •
Dr. med. dent. (
medicinae dentariae; dentistry); •
Dr. med. vet. (
medicinae veterinariae; veterinary medicine); •
Dr.-Ing. (engineering); •
Dr. oec. (
oeconomiae; economics); •
Dr. rer. pol. (
rerum politicarum; economics, business administration, political science). The concept of a US-style
professional doctorate as an entry-level professional qualification does not exist. Professional doctorates obtained in other countries, not requiring a thesis or not being third cycle qualifications under the Bologna process, can only be used postnominally, e.g., "Max Mustermann, MD", and do not allow the use of the title Dr. In medicine, "doctoral" dissertations are often written alongside undergraduate study therefore,
European Research Council decided in 2010 that such Dr. med. degrees do not meet the international standards of a Ph.D. research degree. The duration of the doctorate depends on the field: a doctorate in medicine may take less than a full-time year to complete; those in other fields, two to six years. Over fifty doctoral designations exist, many of them rare or no longer in use. As a title, the degree is commonly written in front of the name in abbreviated form, e.g.,
Dr. rer. nat. Max Mustermann or
Dr. Max Mustermann, dropping the designation entirely. However, leaving out the designation is only allowed when the doctorate degree is not an honorary doctorate, which must be indicated by
Dr. h.c. (from Latin honoris causa). Although the honorific does not become part of the name, holders can demand that the title appear in official documents. The title is not mandatory. The honorific is commonly used in formal letters. For holders of other titles, only the highest title is mentioned. In contrast to English, in which a person's name is preceded by at most one title (except in very ceremonious usage), the formal German mode of address permits several titles in addition to "Herr" or "Frau" (which, unlike "Mr" or "Ms", is not considered a title at all, but an
Anrede or "address"), including repetitions in the case of multiple degrees, as in "Frau Prof. Dr. Dr. Schmidt", for a person who would be addressed as "Prof. Schmidt" in English. In the German university system it is common to write two doctoral theses, the
inaugural thesis (), completing a course of study, and the
habilitation thesis (
Habilitationsschrift), which opens the road to a professorship. Upon completion of the habilitation thesis, a
Habilitation is awarded, which is indicated by appending
habil. (
habilitata/habilitatus) to the doctorate, e.g.,
Dr. rer. nat. habil. Max Mustermann. It is considered as an additional academic qualification rather than an academic degree formally. It qualifies the owner to teach at German universities (
facultas docendi). The holder of a
Habilitation receives the authorization to teach a certain subject (
venia legendi). This has been the traditional prerequisite for attaining
Privatdozent (PD) and employment as a full university
professor. With the introduction of
Juniorprofessuren—around 2005—as an alternative track towards becoming a professor at universities (with tenure),
Habilitation is no longer the only university career track.
India In
India, doctorates are offered by universities. Entry requirements include a master's degree. Some universities consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering, medicine or law as qualifications for pursuing doctorate level degrees. Entrance examinations are held for almost all programs. In most universities, the duration of coursework and writing the thesis is 3–7 years. The most common doctoral degree is a Ph.D.
Italy Until the introduction of the
dottorato di ricerca in the mid-1980s, the
laurea generally constituted the highest academic degree obtainable in Italy. The first institution in
Italy to create a doctoral program was
Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1927 under the historic name
"Diploma di Perfezionamento". The
dottorato di ricerca was introduced by law and presidential decree in 1980, in a reform of academic teaching, training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods. Italy uses a three-level degree system following the
Bologna Process. The first-level degree, called a
laurea (bachelor's degree), requires three years and a short thesis. The second-level degree, called a
laurea magistrale (master's degree), is obtained after two additional years, specializing in a branch of the field. This degree requires more advanced thesis work, usually involving academic research or an internship. The final degree is called a
dottorato di ricerca (Ph.D.) and is obtained after three years of academic research on the subject and a thesis. Alternatively, after obtaining the
laurea or the
laurea magistrale, one can complete a "master's" (first-level master's after the
laurea or second-level master's after the
laurea magistrale) of one or two years, usually including an internship. An Italian "master's" is not the same as a master's degree; it is intended to be more focused on professional training and practical experience. Regardless of the field of study, the title for Bachelors Graduate students is
Dottore/Dottoressa (abbrev.
Dott./
Dott.ssa, or as
Dr.), not to be confused with the title for the Ph.D., which is instead
Dottore/Dottoressa di Ricerca. A
laurea magistrale grants instead the title of
Dottore/Dottoressa magistrale. Graduates in the fields of Education, Art and Music are also called
Dr. Prof. (or simply
Professore) or
Maestro. Many professional titles, such as
ingegnere (engineer) are awarded only upon passing a post-graduation examination (
esame di stato), and registration in the relevant professional association. The
Superior Graduate Schools in Italy (
Italian:
Scuola Superiore Universitaria), also called
Schools of Excellence (
Italian:
Scuole di Eccellenza) such as
Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa and
Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies keep their historical
"Diploma di Perfezionamento" title by law and
MIUR Decree.
Japan Dissertation-only Until the 1990s, most natural science and engineering doctorates in Japan were earned by industrial researchers in Japanese companies. These degrees were awarded by the employees' former university, usually after years of research in industrial laboratories. The only requirement is submission of a dissertation, along with articles published in well-known journals. This program is called . It produced the majority of engineering doctoral degrees from national universities. University-based doctoral programs called , are gradually replacing these degrees. By 1994, more doctoral engineering degrees were earned for research within university laboratories (53%) than industrial research laboratories (47%). Since 1978, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) has provided tutorial and financial support for promising researchers in Asia and Africa. The program is called JSPS RONPAKU.
Professional degree The only professional doctorate in Japan is the Juris Doctor, known as
hōmu hakushi (法務博士) The program generally lasts two or three years. This curriculum is professionally oriented, but unlike in the US the program does not provide education sufficient for a law license. All candidates for a bar license must pass the bar exam (
shihou shiken), attend the Legal Training and Research Institute and pass the practical exam (
nikai shiken or
shihou shushusei koushi).
Netherlands and Flanders The traditional academic system of the
Netherlands provided the basic academic diploma,
propaedeuse, and three academic degrees:
kandidaat (the lowest degree), depending on gender
doctorandus or
doctoranda (drs.) (with equivalent degrees in engineering – ir. and law – mr.) and
doctor (dr.). After successful completion of the first year of university, the student was awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree). In some fields, this diploma was abolished in the 1980s. In physics and mathematics, the student could directly obtain a
kandidaats (candidate) diploma in two years. The candidate diploma was all but abolished by 1989. It used to be attained after completion of the majority of courses of the academic study (usually after completion of course requirements of the third year in the program), after which the student was allowed to begin work on their doctorandus thesis. The successful completion of this thesis conveyed the
doctoranda/us title, implying that the student's initial studies were finished. In addition to these 'general' degrees, specific titles equivalent to the
doctorandus degree were awarded for law:
meester (master) (mr.), and for engineering:
ingenieur (engineer) (ir.). Following the Bologna protocol the Dutch adopted the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees. The old candidate's degree was revived to become the bachelor's degree and the
doctorandus (mr and ir degrees) was replaced by master's degrees. Students can only enroll in a doctorate system after completing a research university level master's degree; although dispensation can be granted on a case-by-case basis after scrutiny of the individual's portfolio. The most common way to conduct doctoral studies is to work as
promovendus/
assistent in opleiding (aio)/
onderzoeker in opleiding (oio) (
research assistant with additional courses and supervision), perform extensive research and write a dissertation consisting of published articles (over a period of four or more years). Research can also be conducted without official research assistant status, for example through a business-sponsored research laboratory. The doctor's title is the highest academic title in the Netherlands and Flanders. In research doctorates the degree is always Ph.D. or dr. with no distinction between disciplines, and can only be granted by research universities.
Netherlands Every Ph.D. thesis has to be promoted by a research university staff member holding
ius promovendi (the right to promote). In the Netherlands all full professors have ius promovendi, as well as other academic staff granted this right on individual basis by the board of their university (almost always senior associate professors). The promotor has the role of principal advisor and determines whether the thesis quality suffices and can be submitted to the examining committee. The examining committee is appointed by the academic board of the university based on recommendation of the promotor and consists of experts in the field. The examining committee reviews the thesis manuscript and has to approve or fail the thesis. Failures at this stage are rare because promotors generally not submit work they deem inadequate to the examining committee, supervisors and promotor lose prestige among their colleagues should they allow a substandard thesis to be submitted. After examining committee approval, the candidate publishes the thesis (generally more than 100 copies) and sends it to the examining committee, colleagues, friends and family with an invitation to the public defence. Additional copies are kept in the university library and the
Royal Library of the Netherlands. The degree is awarded in a formal, public, defence session, in which the thesis is defended against critical questions of the "opposition" (the examining committee). Specific formalities differ between universities, for example whether a public presentation is given, either before or during the session, specific phrasing in the procedure, and dress code. In most protocols, candidates can be supported by
paranymphs, a largely ceremonial role, but they are formally allowed to take over the defence on behalf of the candidate. Doctoral candidates The actual defence lasts exactly the assigned time slot (45 minutes to 1 hour exactly depending on the university) after which the defence is suspended by the
bedel who stops the examination, frequently mid sentence. Failure during this session is possible, but extremely rare. After formal approval of the thesis and the defence by the examining committee in a closed discussion, the session is resumed and the promotor grants the degree and hands over the diploma to the candidate, and usually congratulates the candidate and gives a personal speech praising the work of the
young doctor (laudatio), before the session is formally closed. Dutch doctors may use PhD behind their name instead of the uncapitalized dr. before their name. Those who obtained a degree in a foreign country can only use the Dutch title dr. if their grade is approved as equivalent by the
Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs though according to the
opportunity principle, little effort is spent in identifying such fraud. Those who have multiple doctor (dr.) titles may use the title dr.mult. which does not grant the right to use the dr. title abbreviation. In 2023, a pilot started at universities of applied sciences with a professional doctoral programme, in which the focus is on applying knowledge to improve or solve professional processes or products.
Flanders In
Belgium's
Flemish Community the doctorandus title was only used by those who actually started their doctoral work. Doctorandus is still used as a synonym for a Ph.D. student. The
licentiaat (licensee) title was in use for a regular graduate until the Bologna reform changed the licentiaat degree to the master's degree (the Bologna reform abolished the two-year kandidaat degree and introduced a three-year academic bachelor's degree instead).
Poland In
Poland, an academic degree of 'doctor' is awarded in sciences and arts upon an examination and defence of a
doctoral dissertation. As Poland is a signatory to the
Bologna Process, doctoral studies are a third cycle of studies following the
bachelor's () and
master's () degrees or their equivalents. Doctoral student is known as (masculine form) or (feminine form). Doctorate is awarded within specified brach and discipline of science or art by university or research institute accredited by the
minister responsible for higher education. The title is abbreviated to in nominative case. Doctors may further undergo the
habilitation process. This system has been used since with minor adjustments. The
Candidate of the Sciences title is usually seen as roughly equivalent to
research doctorates in Western countries while the
Doctor of the Sciences title is relatively rare and retains its exclusivity. Most "Candidates" never reach the "Doctor of the Sciences" title. Similar title systems were adopted by many of the
Soviet bloc countries.
Spain 's doctoral
biretta Doctoral degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 778/1998), or (in
Spanish). They are granted by the university on behalf of the king. Its diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a national registry of theses called TESEO. According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), fewer than 5% of M.Sc. degree holders are admitted to Ph.D. programmes. on the walls (in this case, the
Seville Cathedral).|alt=Faded red letters on a stone wall. All doctoral programs are research-oriented. A minimum of 4 years of study is required, divided into 2 stages: • A 2-year (or longer) period of studies concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3 Professors. Upon approval from the university, the candidate receives a (part qualified doctor, equivalent to M.Sc.). From 2008 it is possible to substitute the former diploma by a recognized master program. • A 2-year (or longer) research period includes extensions for up to 10 years. The student must present a thesis describing a discovery or original contribution. If approved by their thesis director, the study is presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars. Any Doctor attending the public defense is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions. If approved, the candidate receives the doctorate. Four marks used to be granted: Unsatisfactory (), Pass (), Remarkable (), "Cum laude" (), and "Summa cum laude" (). Those Doctors granted their degree "summa cum laude" were allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award". Since September 2012 and regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 99/2011) (in Spanish), three marks can be granted: Unsatisfactory (), Pass () and "Cum laude" () as maximum mark. In the public defense the doctor is notified if the thesis has passed or not passed. The mark is awarded after the public defense as the result of a private, anonymous vote. Votes are verified by the university. A unanimous vote of the reviewers nominates Doctors granted for an "Extraordinary Award" (). In the same Royal Decree the initial 3-year study period was replaced by a research master's degree (lasting one or two years; professional master's degrees do not grant direct access to Ph.D. programs) that concludes with a public dissertation called or . An approved project earns a master's degree that grants access to a Ph.D. program and initiates the period of research. A doctorate is required in order to teach at a university. Some universities offer an online Ph.D. model. Only
Ph.D. holders,
Grandees and
Dukes can sit and cover their heads in the presence of the King. From 1857,
Complutense University was the only one in Spain authorised to confer the doctorate. This law remained in effect until 1954, when the
University of Salamanca joined in commemoration of its septcentenary. In 1970, the right was extended to all Spanish universities. All doctorate holders are reciprocally recognised as equivalent in Germany and Spain (according to the "Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994").
United Kingdom History of the UK doctorate The doctorate has long existed in the UK as, originally, the second degree in divinity, law, medicine and music. But it was not until the late 19th century that the research doctorate, now known as the higher doctorate, was introduced. The first higher doctorate was the
Doctor of Science at
Durham University, introduced in 1882. This was soon followed by other universities, including the
University of Cambridge establishing its ScD in the same year, the
University of London transforming its DSc from an advanced study course to a research degree in 1885, and the
University of Oxford establishing its
Doctor of Letters (DLitt) in 1900. The PhD was adopted in the UK following a joint decision in 1917 by British universities, although it took much longer for it to become established. Oxford became the first university to institute the new degree, although naming it the DPhil. Professional doctorates were introduced in Britain in the 1980s and 1990s. The earliest professional doctorates were in the social sciences, including the
Doctor of Business Administration (DBA),
Doctor of Education (EdD) and
Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy).
British doctorates today Today, except for those awarded
honoris causa (honorary degrees), all doctorates granted by British universities are research doctorates, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of an extensive and substantial thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university. UK doctorates are categorised as: The higher doctorates are stated to be "A higher level of award", which is not covered by the qualifications frameworks. Integrated doctorates, originally known as 'New Route PhDs', were introduced from 2000 onwards. These integrate teaching at master's level during the first one or two years of the degree, either alongside research or as a preliminary to starting research. These courses usually offer a master's-level exit degree after the taught courses are completed. While passing the taught elements is often required, examination of the final doctorate is still by thesis (or equivalent) alone. In 2013,
Research Councils UK issued a 'Statement of Expectations for Postgraduate Training', which lays out the expectations for training in PhDs funded by the research councils. In the latest version (2016), issued together with
Cancer Research UK, the
Wellcome Trust and the
British Heart Foundation, these include the provision of careers advice, in-depth advanced training in the subject area, provision of transferable skills, training in experimental design and statistics, training in good research conduct, and training for compliance with legal, ethical and professional frameworks. The statement also encourages peer-group development through cohort training and/or Graduate schools.
Higher doctorates Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of many years. Typically the candidate submits a collection of previously published, peer-refereed work, which is reviewed by a committee of internal and external academics who decide whether the candidate deserves the doctorate. The higher doctorate is similar in some respects to the
habilitation in some European countries. However, the purpose of the award is significantly different. While the habilitation formally determines whether an academic is suitably qualified to be a university professor, the higher doctorate does not qualify the holder for a position but rather recognises their contribution to research. Law school graduates, although awarded the J.D. degree, are not normally addressed as "doctor". In legal studies, the
Doctor of Juridical Science is considered the equivalent to a Ph.D. Many American universities offer the PhD followed by a professional doctorate or joint PhD with a professional degree. Often, PhD work is sequential to the professional degree, e.g., a PhD in law after a JD or equivalent, in
physical therapy after a DPT, and in
pharmacy after a Pharm.D. Such professional degrees are referred to as an entry-level doctorate program, while the Ph.D. is a post-professional doctorate. The
University of Pennsylvania followed in 1871, with
Cornell University (1872),
Harvard (1873),
Michigan (1876) and
Princeton (1879) following suit. Controversy and opposition followed the introduction of the Ph.D. into the U.S. educational system, lasting into the 1950s, as it was seen as an unnecessary artificial transplant from a foreign (Germany) educational system, which corrupted a system based on England's
Oxbridge model. Ph.D.s and other research doctorates in the U.S. typically entail successful completion of coursework, passing a
comprehensive examination, and
defending a dissertation. The median number of years for completion of U.S. doctoral degrees is seven. Many programs gauge the potential of applicants to their program and grant a master's degree upon completion of the necessary course work. When so admitted, the student is expected to have mastered the material covered in the master's degree despite not holding one, though this tradition is under heavy criticism. Successfully finishing Ph.D. qualifying exams confers Ph.D. candidate status, allowing dissertation work to begin. The International Affairs Office of the U.S. Department of Education has listed 18 frequently awarded research doctorate titles identified by the
National Science Foundation (NSF) as representing degrees equivalent in research content to the Ph.D.
Professional degrees Many fields offer professional doctorates (or professional master's degrees) for fields such as
engineering,
pharmacy, and
medicine that require such degrees for professional practice or
licensure. Some of these degrees are also termed "
first professional degrees", since they are the first field-specific master's or doctoral degrees. A Doctor of Engineering (DEng) is a professional oriented research degree considered equivalent to a PhD. However a PhD in Engineering includes original theory-based research while DEng degrees focus on applied research solutions. DEng students defend their dissertation or praxis at the end of their study before a committee in order to be conferred a degree. A Doctor of Pharmacy is awarded as the professional degree in pharmacy replacing a bachelor's degree. It is the only professional pharmacy degree awarded in the US. Pharmacy programs vary in length between four years for matriculants with a B.S./B.A. to six years for others. In the twenty-first century professional doctorates appeared in other fields, such as the
Doctor of Audiology in 2007. Advanced Practice Registered Nurses were expected to completely transition to the
Doctor of Nursing Practice by 2015, and physical therapists to the
Doctor of Physical Therapy by 2020. Professional associations play a central role in this transformation amid criticisms on the lack of proper criteria to assure appropriate rigor. In many cases master's-level programs were relabeled as doctoral programs. ==Revocation==