Western Lombard literature emerged in the 13th century with figures like Pietro da Barsegapè from Milan and Girard Pateg from Cremona. Uguccione da Lodi, roughly contemporary, authored the
Libro, a poem of 702 verses addressing the creation of the world, the torments of hell, and moral themes.
Bonvesin da la Riva, a teacher of
grammar, was a notable writer from the latter half of the 13th century. He produced works in both Latin and the vernacular. His most recognized work is
Liber di Tre Scricciur, an ascetic poem that explores human existence and the twelve pains of Hell (
Scrittura negra), the Passion of Christ (
Scrittura rossa), and the death of the righteous and the twelve joys of Paradise (
Scrittura dorata). The late 15th century witnessed the development of Western Lombard literature, with poets such as Andrea Marone (1474-1527) and Lancino Curti (1460-1512). A notable work from the
Renaissance period is
Rabisch (“Arabesque"), a collection of poems published in 1589 by the Milanese painter and literary theorist
Gian Paolo Lomazzo. Written in an invented language drawing from rural Lombard valley dialects, the collection features an unconventional narrative incorporating exotic animals, grotesque characters, and fantastical creatures. More realistic depictions of plebeian life are found in the
Canzoni of Fabio Varese (-1630), a
poète maudit of the early 17th century. These works, published only recently after a period of moralistic suppression, mark a shift towards social realism in Western Lombard literature. Simultaneously, Western Lombard varieties began to be used in theatre.
Francesco de Lemene, an
Arcadian playwright (1634-1704), contributed with plays like
La sposa Francesca.
Carlo Maria Maggi further developed dialect theatre, and his bilingual poetry and plays elevated Milanese dialect literature significantly. His works are characterized by a serious moral perspective and linguistic experimentation, ranging from dialectal plurilingualism in
Il barone di Birbanza to social linguistic stratification in his later plays. Maggi's dialect plays celebrate Milanese as a language, describing it in ''Concorso de' Meneghini'' as clear, unaffected, and seemingly "made on purpose just to tell the truth" (‘che apposta la pär fä / par dì la veritä’). They also established the archetypal Milanese character
Meneghino, a sensible, patient, and pragmatic plebeian servant, and depicted the ‘
verzee’, Milan's main vegetable market, as a place of authentic and spontaneous Milanese culture in
Barone di Birbanza. Satirical poetry flourished in the 18th century, with
Domenico Balestrieri and Carlo Antonio Tanzi (1710-1762) as prominent figures. This era also saw linguistic debates regarding the value and status of dialects.
Milanese dialect poetry reached a peak in the early 19th century with authors like Carlo Porta and
Tommaso Grossi. Porta's extensive poems and
sonnets, ranging from
Enlightenment-era works like
I desgrazzi de Giovannin Bongee to
Romantic social portraits such as
La Ninetta del Verzee,
Lament del Marchionn di gamb avert, and
La nomina del cappellan, are particularly significant. These poems focus on the lives of the marginalized and impoverished, reflecting the emerging European emphasis on
human rights. Despite anti-dialect sentiments among some literary circles, dialects became a medium for significant literary works. Recent scholarship suggests a substantial linguistic and poetic influence of Porta's work on
Manzoni's novel
The Betrothed. Late 19th-century dialect theatre included comedies by Edoardo Ferravilla (1846-1916) and Carlo Bertolazzi (1870-1916). In the 20th century, as spoken use of dialects declined, they evolved into poetic languages. Delio Tessa and
Franco Loi are considered important Italian dialect poets of the 20th century. Today, a substantial body of
Western Lombard literature exists, including dictionaries, grammars, and a 2020 translation of the
Gospels into a narrative of the
life of Christ. == See also ==