Iodothyronine deiodinase

In tissues, deiodinases can either activate or inactivate thyroid hormones: • Activation occurs by conversion of thyroxine (T4) to the active hormone triiodothyronine (T3) through the removal of an iodine atom on the outer ring. • Inactivation of thyroid hormones occurs by removal of an iodine atom on the inner ring, which converts thyroxine to the inactive reverse triiodothyronine (rT3), or which converts the active triiodothyronine to diiodothyronine (T2). The major part of thyroxine deiodination occurs within the cells. Deiodinase 2 activity can be regulated by ubiquitination: • The covalent attachment of ubiquitin inactivates D2 by disrupting dimerization and targets it to degradation in the proteosome. • The Hedgehog cascade acts to increase D2 ubiquitination through WSB1 activity, decreasing D2 activity. D-propranolol inhibits thyroxine deiodinase, thereby blocking the conversion of T4 to T3, providing some though minimal therapeutic effect. == Reactions ==

The three deiodinase enzymes share certain structural features in common although their sequence identity is lower than 50%. Each enzyme weighs between 29 and 33kDa. They share a TRX fold that contains the active site including the rare selenocysteine amino acid and two histidine residues. Selenocysteine is coded by a UGA codon, which generally signifies termination of a peptide through a stop codon. In point mutation experiments with Deiodinase 1 changing UGA to the stop codon TAA resulted in a complete loss of function, while changing UGA to cysteine (TGT) caused the enzyme to operate at around 10% normal efficiency. In order for UGA to be read as a selenocysteine amino acid instead of a stop codon, it is necessary that a downstream stem loop sequence, the selenocysteine insertion sequence (SECIS), be present to bind with SECIS binding protein-2 (SBP-2), which binds with elongation factor EFsec. even though it is important to the functioning of the enzyme. Deiodinase 2 is localized to the ER membrane while Deiodinase 1 and 3 are found in the plasma membrane. The enzymes catalyze a reductive elimination of iodine, thereby oxidizing themselves similar to Prx, followed by a reductive recycling of the enzyme. == Types ==

In most vertebrates, there are three types of enzymes that can deiodinate thyroid hormones: Related proteins have been found in invertebrate chordates, mostly with a selenocystine, though a few have cystine instead. == Function ==

Deiodinase 1 both activates T4 to produce T3 and inactivates T4. Besides its increased function in producing extrathyroid T3 in patients with hyperthyroidism, its function is less well understood than D2 or D3 Deiodinase 2 also plays a significant role in thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue (BAT). In response to sympathetic stimulation, dropping temperature, or overfeeding BAT, D2 increases oxidation of fatty acids and uncouples oxidative phosphorylation via uncoupling protein, causing mitochondrial heat production. D2 increases during cold stress in BAT and increases intracellular T3 levels. In D2 deficient models, shivering is a behavioral adaptation to the cold. However, heat production is much less efficient than uncoupling lipid oxidation. == Disease relevance ==

In cardiomyopathy the heart reverts to a fetal gene programming due to the overload of the heart. Like during fetal development, thyroid hormone levels are low in the overloaded heart tissue in a local hypothyroid state, with low levels of deiodinase 1 and deiodinase 2. Although deiodinase 3 levels in a normal heart are generally low, in cardiomyopathy deiodinase 3 activity is increased to decrease energy turnover and oxygen consumption. During development, hypothyroidism is considered more severe and leads to neurotoxicity as cretinism or other human cognitive disorders, altered metabolism and underdeveloped organs. Medication and environmental exposures can result in hypothyroidism with changes in deiodinase enzyme activity. The drug iopanoic acid (IOP) decreased cutaneous cell proliferation by inhibition of deiodinase enzyme type 1 or 2 reducing the conversion of T4 to T3. The environmental chemical DE-71, a PBDE pentaBDE brominated flame retardant decreased hepatic deiodinase I transcription and enzyme activity in neonatal rats with hypothyroidism. == Quantifying enzyme activity ==

In vitro, including cell culture experiments, deiodination activity is determined by incubating cells or homogenates with high amounts of labeled thyroxine (T4) and required cosubstrates. As a measure of deiodination, the production of radioactive iodine and other physiological metabolites, in particular T3 or reverse T3, are determined and expressed (e.g. as fmol/mg protein/minute). In vivo, deiodination activity is estimated from equilibrium levels of free T3 and free T4. A simple approximation is T3/T4 ratio, a more elaborate approach is calculating sum activity of peripheral deiodinases (SPINA-GD) from free T4, free T3 and parameters for protein binding, dissociation and hormone kinetics. In atypical cases, this last approach can benefit from measurements of TBG, but usually only requires measurement of TSH, fT3 and fT4, and as such has no added laboratory requirements besides the measurement of the same. == See also ==