The new nation had weak national, state and local governments. A strong civil society was built by Volunteers in a culture of collaboration. In 1835, French historian
Alexis de Tocqueville wrote about the "peculiar practice" of people in the new American colonies supporting "private initiatives for public good, focusing on quality of life" in his book "Democracy in America." He said voluntary, charitable giving was a distinct cornerstone of American democracy; and he shared, "Americans of all ages, all conditions, and all dispositions constantly form associations…in this manner they found hospitals, prisons, and schools." (American Philanthropy, Robert H. Bremner, Chicago University Press, 1988) He also noted that "voluntary associations" permeated American life, as a distinguishing feature of the American character and culture. Americans, he said, did not rely on others – government, an aristocracy, or the church – to solve their public problems; rather, they did it themselves, through voluntary associations, which is to say, philanthropy, which was characteristically democratic. Important American philanthropists of the first half of the 19th century ere
Gerrit Smith and the industrialist
Arthur Tappan and to a lesser extent his brother
Lewis.
Capt. Robert Richard Randall One of the earliest charities formed in the United States still exists today, The Sailors' Snug Harbor, formed by philanthropist Capt. Robert Richard Randall of New York who asked that his estate be used in perpetuity to care for "aged, decrepit, and worn-out sailors". Capt. Randall passed in 1801, but his charity continues to this day to help retired Merchant Mariners across the United States.
George Peabody By the 1820s, newly rich American businessmen were establishing philanthropic work, especially with respect to private colleges and hospitals.
George Peabody (1795–1869), a merchant and banker based in Baltimore and London, became the father of modern philanthropy. Historian
Roderick Nash argues that Peabody was a disciple of Benjamin Franklin, who joined hard work with frugality, punctuality, and a strong public spirit. Peabody was a pioneer, whose success in philanthropy set the standard for American millionaires in a way that was unique in the world. Philanthropy in Europe typically came from old aristocrat families with vast inherited wealth who built palaces and museums that were eventually opened to the public. The American way was for the self-made millionaires to become self-made philanthropists, a model that was perfected in the next generation by
Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919) and
John D Rockefeller (1839–1937). They agreed with Peabody that riches produced a duty to give most of it back to the community through specialized permanent foundations. Peabody was especially imaginative – and relied on his own memories of poverty and self learning to figure new ways to educate and culturally enrich the next generation of poor youth, and thereby promote more equality in American society.
Jacksonian democracy promoted equality in politics; he promoted equality and culture through libraries, schools, museums and colleges. He rejected doling out bundles of cash to the poor as a waste of money in comparison to building permanent institutions that produced a steady stream of benefits. His last great benefaction was the Peabody Education Fund, which had a dramatic impact in improving southern public schools. It was the first major philanthropy that gave large sums to very poor Blacks on the same terms as whites, albeit within the strict limits imposed by Southern culture regarding racial segregation and white supremacy. Even more important was the institutional framework that Peabody devised, of a permanent professional foundation, run by experts in philanthropy, who were guided by and indeed invented the best practices of the day.
Jewish philanthropy In the mid-19th century, German Jewish immigrants operated businesses and financial institutions in cities across the country. They set up extensive charitable institutions, generously giving money and volunteer time of charity a high prestige activity. After 1920 the newer Yiddish-speaking Jewish community centered in New York City became active in philanthropy.
Local millionaires By the late 19th century, about a third of the successful local businessman were making philanthropic donations.
Albert Shaw editor of the magazine
American Review of Reviews in 1893 examined philanthropic activities of millionaires in several major cities. The highest rate was Baltimore where 49% of the millionaires were active givers; New York City ranked last. Cincinnati millionaires favored musical and artistic ventures; Minneapolis millionaires gave to the state university and the public library; Philadelphians often gave to overseas relief, and the education of blacks and Indians. Boston had a weak profile, apart from donations to Harvard and the Massachusetts General Hospital. Railroad leaders seldom focused on local issues, since they had responsibility for much larger territories. They approve the work of the
railroad YMCAs in uplifting the labor force, though they seldom gave them any corporate money. One exception came in 1882 when the president of the Illinois Central Railroad provided a salary of $50 a month for six months for a YMCA Evangelist in Cairo, Illinois, hoping "he will be able to accomplish some good in that ungodly place." Executives rarely used the railroad's financial resources for philanthropic goals. Occasionally they donated land for public schools or colleges, assuming it would have a positive impact on the selling price of their nearby lands. 's philanthropy.
Puck magazine cartoon by
Louis Dalrymple, 1903
Andrew Carnegie Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919) was the most influential leader of philanthropy on a national (rather than local) scale. After selling his giant steel company in the 1890s he devoted himself to establishing philanthropic organizations, and making direct contributions to many educational cultural and research institutions. His final and largest project was the
Carnegie Corporation of New York, founded in 1911 with a $25 million endowment, later enlarged to $135 million. In all he gave away $350 million, or 90% of his fortune. The establishment of
public libraries in the United States, Britain, and in dominions and colonies of the British Empire started a legacy that still operates on a daily basis for millions of people. The first
Carnegie library opened in 1883 in Dunfermline, Scotland. His method was to build and stock a modern library, on condition that the local authority provided site and keep it in operation. In 1885, he gave $500,000 to Pittsburgh for a public library, and in 1886, he gave $250,000 to Allegheny City for a music hall and library, and $250,000 to
Edinburgh, Scotland, for a free library. In total Carnegie gave $55 million to some 3,000 libraries, in 47 American states and overseas. As VanSlyck (1991) shows, the last years of the 19th century saw acceptance of the idea that libraries should be available to the American public free of charge. However the design of the idealized free library was at the center of a prolonged and heated debate. On one hand, the library profession called for designs that supported efficiency in administration and operation; on the other, wealthy philanthropists favored buildings that reinforced the paternalistic metaphor and enhanced civic pride. Between 1886 and 1917, Carnegie reformed both library philanthropy and library design, encouraging a closer correspondence between the two. Using the corporation as his model, Carnegie introduced many of the philanthropic practices of the modern foundation. At the same time, he rejected the rigid social and spatial hierarchy of the 19th-century library. In over 1,600 buildings that he funded and in hundreds of others influenced by its forms, Carnegie helped create an American public library type that embraced the planning principles espoused by librarians while extending a warmer welcome to the reading public. There was some opposition, for example in Canada where anti-American and labour spokesman opposed his libraries, in fear of the influence of a powerful American, and in protest against his breaking a strike in 1892. Carnegie was in fact transforming his wealth into cultural power independent of Governmental or political controls. However he transcended national boundaries – he identified so much with Britain that at one point he thought of running for Parliament. In Canada and Britain he worked with like-minded local intellectual and cultural leaders who shared his basic values to promote an urgently needed Canadian or British cultural, intellectual, and educational infrastructure. In those countries, the rich industrialists rarely supported national philanthropy. He also set up numerous permanent foundations, especially in pursuit of world peace, such as the
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace formed in 1910 with a $10 million endowment. In
Gospel of Wealth (1889), Carnegie proselytized the rich about their responsibilities to society. His homily had an enormous influence in its day, and into the 21st century. One early disciple was
Phoebe Hearst, wife of the founder of the Hearst dynasty in San Francisco. She expanded the Carnegie approach to include women declaring that leisured women had a sacred duty to give to causes, especially progressive education and reform, that would benefit their communities, help those excluded or marginalized from America's mainstream, and advance women's careers as reformers and political leaders. ==1900 to 1980==