He returned to Yale in 1954, working as an Instructor and Lecturer until 1960, making significant contributions in the fields of
experimental psychology,
learning, and
ethology, and co-publishing some papers with
Frank A. Beach. Jaynes had begun to turn his focus to
comparative psychology and the
history of psychology, and in 1964 he became a
research associate at
Princeton University. There he befriended
Edwin G. Boring, and with plenty of time to pursue the problem of consciousness, Princeton became his academic home until 1995.
Research and motivations Jaynes had dedicated years of research in psychology to the problem of consciousness and he had sought the roots of consciousness in the processes of
learning and
cognition that animals and humans shared in common, in accord with prevailing
evolutionary assumptions that dominated mid-20th century thinking. He had established his reputation in the study of
animal learning and natural
animal behaviour, and in 1968 he lectured on the history of
comparative psychology at the
National Science Foundation Summer Institute. In September 1969 he gave his first public address on his "new theory of consciousness" at the annual meeting of the
American Psychological Association. His "radical approach" explained the phenomena of
introspection as dependent on culture and language, especially
metaphors, more than on the physiology of the brain. This was a challenge to mainstream assumptions of 20th century research, especially to those that justified looking for origins of consciousness in evolution. It was also a challenge to the
behaviorists, who, "under the tutelage of
John Watson, solved the problem of consciousness by ignoring it." What they had 'ignored' were the problems of
introspection and the weaknesses of introspectionist methods of 19th century psychologists. Those 20th century thinkers who questioned the existence of introspection never doubted the existence of sense
perception, however; they clearly distinguished between the two. On the other hand, in later years Jaynes's approach had become "radical" for emphasizing the distinction. Jaynes differed with those who ignored it, for example
Stuart Sutherland, who simply defined consciousness as '
awareness'. Jaynes acknowledged that his whole argument was "contradictory to the usual and [...] superficial views of consciousness", and he insisted that "the most common error" people make "is to confuse consciousness with perception." But there can be no progress in the science of consciousness until careful distinctions have been made between what is introspectable and all the hosts of other neural abilities we have come to call
cognition. Consciousness is not the same as cognition and should be sharply distinguished from it. In the years following, Jaynes talked more about how consciousness began, presenting "his talk [...] widely, as word of his slightly outrageous but tantalizing theory had spread." In 1972 he had delivered a paper, "The Origin of Consciousness", at Cornell University, writing: "For if consciousness is based on language, then it follows that only humans are conscious, and that we became so at some historical epoch after language was evolved." This took Jaynes, as he put it, directly into "the earliest writings of mankind to see if we can find any hints as to when this important invention of consciousness might have occurred." He went to ancient texts searching for early evidence of consciousness, and found what he believed to be evidence of remarkably recent . In the
semi-historical Greek epic the
Iliad Jaynes found "the earliest writing of men in a language that we can really comprehend, [which] when looked at objectively, reveals a very different mentality from our own." In a 1978 interview,
Richard Rhodes reported that Jaynes "took up the study of
Greek to trace
Greek words for mind back to their origins. By the time he got to the
Iliad, the words had become concrete, but there is no word for mind in the
Iliad at all."
Publications and theories Jaynes's one and only book, published in 1976, is
The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. The topic of
consciousness – "the human ability to introspect" – is introduced by reviewing prior efforts to explain its problematic nature: those efforts, as one of Jaynes's early critics has acknowledged, add up to a "spectacular history of failure". Abandoning the assumption that consciousness is innate, Jaynes explains it instead as a learned behavior that "arises ... from language, and specifically from metaphor." With this understanding, Jaynes then demonstrates that ancient texts and archeology can reveal a history of human mentality alongside the histories of other cultural products. His analysis of the evidence leads him not only to place the origin of consciousness during the
2nd millennium BCE but also to hypothesize the existence of an older non-conscious "mentality that he calls the bicameral mind, referring to the brain's two hemispheres". After publishing , Jaynes was frequently invited to speak at conferences and as a guest lecturer at other universities. In 1984, he was invited to give the plenary lecture at the
Wittgenstein Symposium in Kirchberg, Austria. He gave six major lectures in 1985 and nine in 1986. He was awarded an
honorary PhD by
Rhode Island College in 1979 and another from
Elizabethtown College in 1985. Jaynes wrote an extensive afterword for the 1990 edition of his book, in which he addressed criticisms and clarified that his theory has four separate hypotheses: 1) consciousness is based on and accessed by language; 2) the non-conscious
bicameral mind is based on verbal hallucinations; 3) the breakdown of bicameral mind precedes consciousness, but the dating is variable; 4) the 'double brain' of bicamerality is based on the two
hemispheres of the cerebral cortex being organized differently from today's
functional lateralization. He also expanded on the impact of consciousness on imagination and memory, notions of the
self, emotions, anxiety, guilt, and sexuality. ==Death==