Circassian migrations and creation of the state The genealogies of Kabarda's rulers trace their origins back to the legendary ruler
Inal the Great. According to these genealogies, the Idar, Kazi, Shodjenuqo, Misost, Jembulat, Bekmirza, Hatokhshoqo, Jilakhstan, and Talostan families were considered his descendants. J. Kagezezhev notes that Kabarda emerged from the viceroyalty of Kabard Tambi, located between the Urup and Terek rivers. Kabardians established their states following the power vacuum created after the defeat of the
Golden Horde khan
Tokhtamysh by
Tamerlane in the
Tokhtamysh–Timur war. They migrated deep into the Central Caucasus, pushing back the
Alanians, ancestors of modern
Ossetians, as well as
Karachay and
Balkar groups, forcing them into the mountainous gorges and settling the plains, thereby forming Kabarda. Scholars differ on the timing of Circassian migration to Kabarda. S. Khotko, B. Chich, and B. Kerefov place it in the 11th–12th centuries. A. Gadlo suggests early migration in the 13th century and mass movements in the 14th–15th centuries, preceded by sporadic migrations in the 12th century. A. Smirnov, V. Vinogradov, and R. Shatum date it to the late 14th–early 15th century, while L. Lavrov and others argue for migration by the mid-13th century. I. Kalmykov suggests the second half of the 13th–early 14th century. Some historians, including R. Betrozov, A. Nagoev, and V. Kuznetsov, favor the 15th–16th centuries, citing the absence of Golden Horde numismatics and evidence from regional chronicles. Other scholars, including L. Apostolov, V. Kudashev, K. Laipanov, and I. Shamanov, date the arrival to post-14th century, after Turkish conquests of Taman. Overall, consensus places Kabardian expansion and consolidation by the 16th century, with their principality emerging by the mid-15th century. During their expansion, the Kabardians occupied lands from the upper Kuban River to the Sunzha River, encompassing both foothills and plains. They became a lingua franca in the Central Caucasus from the 16th to 18th centuries, interacting diplomatically and genealogically with neighboring groups, including the Ossetian Tsargasats and the Talostanians of Lesser Kabardia. The Balkars recognized Kabardians as "Cherkesle," and their territory as "Kabardy." A letter from the Baksan party of Kabardian princes to
Elizabeth I states that during Inal's reign, Janibek ruled Crimea, placing the foundation of the Kabardian dynasty no later than the 1470s. Later that same year, however, conditions in the region deteriorated. A failure of crops and other economic difficulties made it increasingly difficult for the Horde to maintain its position in the Kuma valley. As a result, the Horde moved closer to the frontier of Kabardia and entered the
Pyatigorsk region, an area that served as an important transitional zone between the steppe and the mountainous territories of the Circassians. During this period of migration, several major Tatar tribal groups decided to separate from the main body of the Horde and migrate toward the
Volga River, seeking more stable pastures and political security. The leadership of the Great Horde eventually followed these groups, marking the end of its temporary presence in the Kuma–Pyatigorsk region.
16th century The 16th century started with a
Ottoman-Crimean incursion for Eastern and Western Circassians. In 1504, Şehzade Mehmed led a expedition into Kabardia, intending to seize lands controlled by the Idareyq dynasty. Mehmed requested military support from the
Crimean Khanate, but this request was rejected. The campaign ultimately failed after Mehmed was poisoned on the orders of his father,
Bayezid II. the Kabardians faced another
war by the Crimeans in 1518, which the Kabardians briefly won according to the Russian reports, they destroyed more than half of the Crimean army In the 1530s, Kabardian influence expanded further toward the
Caspian Sea.
Beslan Jankhot of Kabardia pursued an active policy in the Lower Terek basin. According to Circassian tradition, during his reign Kabardian forces reached
Astrakhan and conducted raids as far as
Derbent. He concluded an alliance with the
Shamkhalate of Tarki, the largest feudal domain in
Dagestan, which helped secure trade routes linking Astrakhan and Derbent with Kabarda. According to folklore, Kabardian expeditions to Astrakhan were periodic, described as occurring every nine to ten years in order to obtain textiles and other goods that were scarce in Kabarda. These campaigns reportedly yielded significant booty and strengthened the authority of the supreme prince. In 1533, the
Nogais recaptured Astrakhan and deposed the pro Kabardian khan. This marked the beginning of intensified Nogai efforts to establish dominance in the Ciscaucasia. Following the capture of Astrakhan, the Nogais organized a major campaign against Kabarda. In the spring of 1535, a large Nogai force advanced into the Ciscaucasia. The first major engagement occurred at the confluence of the
Malka and
Terek rivers. The Nogais pushed the Kabardian forces back, compelling them to withdraw toward the area between the
Baksan and Psygansu rivers. The Nogais advanced through the region and burned abandoned settlements. Kabardian forces then conducted a series of counterattacks against dispersed Nogai detachments. The Nogais regrouped and moved toward the Psygansu River, confronting Kabardian defensive positions in the area between present day Aushiger and Kashkatau. After heavy fighting, Kabardian forces withdrew into mountainous terrain. Further engagements took place in the mountain gorges and forests, resulting in substantial casualties on both sides. Following the arrival of approximately 2,000
Abazins, Kabardian forces launched a counteroffensive. In a decisive battle near Mount Kashkatau, the Nogai army was defeated and retreated. Kabardian forces pursued the withdrawing enemy and captured prisoners. The conflict resulted in significant losses among the Kabardian nobility, including the youngest son of Idar Kidirshoko. In 1537/1538, a major internal conflict called the
Battle of Kyzburun broke out, the conflict was fought between the coalition of
Prince Idar and opposing Kabardian princes, primarily
Talostan Jankhot, supported by Abazin forces. The conflict emerged from a succession struggle following the fragmentation of authority among Circassian nobles. Idar, with support from the Western
Circassian principalities, was the main prince fighting in the conflict. The opposing Kabardian forces established a defensive position near Mount Kyzburun along the
Baksan River and were reinforced by
Abazin infantry. Both sides fielded large forces, and the battle was marked by intense fighting, preserved in Circassian oral tradition. Idar’s coalition ultimately secured victory. In the aftermath, Idar was recognized as the
Grand Prince of Kabardia, consolidating power and establishing the dominance of his lineage. The victory led to political realignment within Kabardia, including the decline of rival princely houses and the migration of certain groups. However, the outcome also contributed to prolonged internal tensions and rivalries, as Idar’s reliance on external allies affected perceptions of his legitimacy among Kabardian elites. After Idar died, Qeytuqo I Beslan came to power and rule until the 1550s. After him, the great Kabardian prince
Temruqo Idar started ruling Kabardia. Upon becoming Grand Prince of Kabardia in the 1550s,
Temryuk Idar faced opposition from rival Kabardian princes who sought the position for themselves. Among them was Qanshao Jilakhstenqo, who left Kabardia and allied with the
Kumyks, reportedly carrying out repeated raids on Kabardian territory. According to some accounts, these raids targeted hayfields and disrupted the harvest of millet, the main crop of the
Kabardians, forcing much of the population to seek refuge in the
Kistin Gorge. These actions were attributed to the seizure of Qanshao’s lands by the families of Bitu and Maremshao Idar. Qanshao also persuaded the ruler of the
Avar Khanate, Khadan Utsmi, to invade Kabardia. Khadan gathered allies including the
Nogais and the Kumyks, assembling a large force. In response, the Kabardians called upon their Trans-Kuban allies, the
Abazins under Lev Achba and the
Besleneys under Yelzheruqo Qanoqo. Command of the Kabardian allied forces was entrusted to Prince Yelzheruqo. As the invading army crossed the
Terek River, Yelzheruqo attempted negotiations before withdrawing to prepared defensive positions. Two days later, a battle began near the trenches and reportedly lasted for two days. On the third day, fighting resumed and Khadan Utsmi was killed, causing confusion among his forces. The Kabardians launched a counterattack and drove the invading army back toward the Terek River, with only a portion of the force escaping. During the battle Prince Koshkao, described as one of the instigators of the campaign, was also killed. The battle later became known as Kishzhibek. In 1556, while
Dmytro Vyshnevetsky was fighting against the Tatars and had captured the city of Islam-Kerman, the Kabardian princes Tazdrup and Dozibok, together with their forces, captured the cities of
Temryuk and
Taman on the orders of
Ivan IV. There,
Temryuk Idar built a fortress and named it after himself; this place is still called Temryuk to this day. Temryuk, who noticed the increasing military support from the
Ottomans to the
Tatars and feared this would affect the
Circassians' ability to thwart any possible assault. Temryuk explored the possible allies, and settled his choice on the
Tsarist Russia. In 1557, Temryuk sent a delegation to Moscow to seek alliance with the
Russians. The delegation included his sons Sultankul and Bulat Gery, who were welcomed by Ivan the Terrible. Ivan agreed to join the alliance with Kabardia. In 1561, the wedding of Temryuk Idar's daughter,
Maria, to Tsar Ivan Terrible strengthened these ties and secured support from the Russian state. In 1562, the Kabardian prince
Temryuk Idar undertook an aggressive campaign against the
Ingush, who lived in anticipation. Detachments of Nogai Murzas come to his aid. The Russian Tsar
Ivan IV the Terrible, married to Temryuk's daughter
Maria, sent 1,000 Cossacks under the command of Grigory Pleshcheev to help him. As a result of this unification of the Kabardino-Nogai-Cossack campaign for discovery, 164 settlements were defeated, judging by the
Russian chronicles. The Ingush went to the mountains again. Kabardians settled on their former territory. After his campaign against the Ingush, Temryuk turned his focus to the
Ossetians, He invaded the Ossetian societies in the
Digor,
Kurtatin, and
Tagaur regions, as well as the
Ksani Eristavate in
Central Ossetia. Assisted by a contingent of 500
streltsy and 500
Cossacks from
Tsardom of Russia, Temryuk's forces captured key Ossetian nobles, including
Burnat,
Aznaur,
Burnak, and
Dudar, and occupied several settlements. By 1562, rival political factions had emerged in
Circassia, particularly over the question of foreign alliances. In 1563, several
Circassian princes proposed to the
Ottoman sultan joint military action against
Astrakhan, with the aim of restoring it to Ottoman control. In 1565, envoys from the so-called “Mountain Circassians” arrived in
Bakhchisarai and repeated the same proposal. Nevertheless, when the
Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire launched a campaign against Astrakhan, the western Circassians refused to take part in it. In response, the Crimean Khanate sent a punitive expedition against the Circassians. However, according to a report sent to Moscow by A. Nagoy, “the Circassians defeated the sons of the Tatar tsar,” and the Tatars paid a heavy price for the campaign. In 1562–1563, a joint military campaign was launched by
Temryuk of Kabarda and the
Tsardom of Russia, led by voivode Grigory Pleshcheyev. The campaign targeted territories in the
North Caucasus, including the lands of the Biyarslan noble family, who were seen as political opponents to Temryuk’s growing influence. In 1563, Temryuk's opponents launched a large-scale offensive that forced him and his sons to flee to
Astrakhan, but soon
Ivan IV of Russia dispatched a Muscovite force of about a thousand men —
Streltsy and
Cossacks under Prince Ivan Dashkov — to restore him. With their help, Temryuk defeated his rivals and reclaimed his lands, forcing the anti-Muscovite chiefs to retreat. Continued skirmishes through 1566–1567 followed, as Temryuk's enemies sought Crimean and Nogai assistance to counterbalance his growing strength, while he secured permanent Russian support through the construction of the Terek Fortress on the
Terek River. Despite Crimean attempts under
Devlet I Giray to intervene, their raids failed to dislodge Muscovite or Kabardian forces. By the end of 1567, Temryuk stood victorious — his alliance with Muscovy firmly established him as the dominant power in Kabarda and marked the beginning of enduring Russo-Circassian influence in the
North Caucasus. Another major battle happened near the Sunzha river in 1567, where the forced of Temryuk once again clashed with the Tarki Shamkhalate. the Shamkhal, Budai I and his brother Surkhay I allied with the Nogais attacked the Kabardians, but their attacked ended in a fiasco where Budai and Surkhay died and Kabardians temporarily occupied the Kumyk lands. In 1569, after failing to capture
Astrakhan, the Crimean–Ottoman army abandoned the Volga and began retreating. The withdrawal soon turned into a disaster. Although Muscovite commanders did not pursue the army, stragglers were frequently attacked by the
Circassians, who were allied with
Muscovy at the time. In several cases Ottoman soldiers were even killed and robbed by their own Crimean and Nogai allies; among the victims was the son-in-law of Kasim Pasha. According to information collected by Novosiltsev, “a third did not reach
Azov,” while another report claimed that “not even a fourth of those Turkish people returned from Astrakhan.” Of the three thousand
Janissaries, only about seven hundred reportedly survived. According to Taranovsky, of the original force of 25,000 cavalry and 3,000 Janissaries, only about 2,000 men reached safety. A
battle took place between the Circassians and the Crimeans on the
Afips River in July 1570; the earliest Russian ambassadorial reports date it to 30 July. During the battle, one such arrow pierced Temryuk, inflicting a mortal wound, while the fortress he had built was captured by the Tatars. Despite his injury, Temryuk continued to fight, and repeated Crimean attempts to cross the river were repelled. Nevertheless, two of his sons, Beberyuk and
Mamstruk, were captured by the Tatars. In 1596,
Kabardian forces led by princes Sholokh and Aytech advanced through the Daryal Gorge, seizing fortified settlements (’‘kabaki’’) belonging to the Vainakh noble
Sultan-Murza. After establishing control in the highlands, they moved southward into Kartli's mountainous borderlands, specifically targeting the
Sioni and
Ksani regions. In May 1597, King
Alexander II of Kartli reported the incursion to Russian envoys
Kuzma Savin and
Andrei Polukhanov. According to their account, Alexander informed them that “Solokh, the Kabardian ruler, and Aitek-Murza” had invaded the “land of Soni,” killing many and taking numerous captives. The term “ruler” (’‘gosudar’’) used by Alexander in reference to Solokh suggests a recognition—possibly tactical—of his authority among the Kabardians.
17th century In 1614, the Lesser Kabardian prince Mudar Alkhas, whose domains were located in the
Darial Gorge, traveled to the court of
Safavid Iran and concluded an alliance with the Safavid shah
Abbas the Great against the
Ossetians and
Ingushs. As part of this political alignment, Mudar increasingly oriented his policies toward cooperation with Iran and openly demonstrated his loyalty to the Safavid ruler. On 1 February 1615, an
Astrakhan Tatar who had escaped from Mudar’s captivity arrived in the city of
Terek and reported that approximately thirty Persian soldiers had arrived together with Mudar and were residing in huts specially constructed for them in the prince’s tavern camp. According to this report, Mudar openly boasted of his alliance with Shah Abbas, placing great hopes in Safavid support. In particular, the shah was expected to send a representative to secure the return of Mudar’s son, who was being held hostage in Terek. At least, this was the version of events that Mudar himself communicated to other Kabardian princes. Subsequently, Mudar moved his taverns into the Darial Gorge and blocked the
Georgian Military Road. This action was undertaken specifically in order to maintain reliable communications with the Persian garrisons stationed in Georgia. In effect, the Greater Caucasus Range functioned as the northern frontier of Iran, and control over the Darial passage was of strategic importance. Mudar placed guards near his taverns and thoroughly fortified all of them, thereby strengthening his position in the region and securing Safavid influence in the central Caucasus. As a result of these developments, in 1615 Shah Abbas, with the assistance of
Kabardians under Mudar and
Kumyks led by Ildar and Giray, launched an invasion of the
Kingdom of Kakheti. The campaign ended with the conquest of Kakheti, further consolidating Safavid power in eastern Georgia and demonstrating the military and political significance of Kabardian and Kumyk cooperation in Abbas’s Caucasian policy. In 1615, a civil war broke out in Kabardia between the princes
Sholokh and Qazi. Sholokh, supported by approximately 15,000
Nogais, launched an invasion against the domains of Qazi. Qazi initially resisted the attack with roughly 2,000 warriors and managed to oppose the advancing forces. However, during a subsequent engagement he was caught between two Nogai detachments and was ultimately defeated. Qazi himself was killed in the battle, along with several of his relatives, including prominent members of his family, and about 700 nobles who had fought on his side. On the following day, Nogai forces entered Qazi’s villages, which had been left without protection after the defeat, and set them on fire, devastating the settlements. In the early 17th century,
Kabarda experienced intense internal strife, with rival princely families vying for dominance. The
Idar's, supported by
Moscow, sought to consolidate power and secure the title of pchyshkhue (Great Prince) exclusively within their lineage. This triggered opposition from the Kazi's, aligned with the
Crimean Khanate,
Lesser Nogai Horde, and influential
Kumyk leaders from the
Shamkhalate of Tarki. By 1641, tensions escalated following the assassination of Mudar Alkazov, a relative and ally of the Idar's. Seeking revenge,
Kelemet Kudenet rallied a coalition consisting of
Kabardian forces,
Nogai detachments, Russian troops from the
Terek fortress, and Kumyk allies. Meanwhile, the Kazi's, led by
Aledjuqo Shodjenuqo, formed their own coalition with the Lesser Nogai Horde and other regional powers. The battle occurred near the
Malka River, with the Idarey-led coalition positioned defensively. Their forces, numbering approximately 3,500, included: •
Kabardian warriors from the Idar's •
Kumyk contingents from the
Shamkhalate of Tarki •
Nogai troops under the command of Saltanash Aksakov and Khoroshay Chubarmametov • A Russian detachment of 500 soldiers, including
Streltsy,
Greben Cossacks, and
Terek-based garrison troops. Despite their numerical strength, the Idar coalition suffered a devastating defeat. Key leaders such as
Kelemet Kudenet, Aidemir-Shamkhal, and Russian commander Artemy Shishmarev were killed in the battle. The Kazi faction's forces, supported by the
Lesser Nogai Horde, overwhelmed their opponents, securing a decisive victory. The outcome of the Battle of the Malka significantly altered the political landscape in Kabarda. The Kazi faction's victory reinforced their influence in the region and weakened the Moscow-backed Idar faction. This shift played a crucial role in shaping Kabardia's internal politics and relations with neighboring powers, including the
Crimean Khanate and Russia. In the 17th century, the Northeastern Caucasus became one of the main theaters of military operations for the Crimean Khanate. Numerous attempts by Crimean Tatar forces to penetrate Transcaucasia were carried out along the North Caucasian route, which passed through Circassia and Kabarda. Such campaigns were undertaken in 1606, 1608, 1616, and 1635. For example, in 1607 the Crimean Khan
Ğazı II Giray spent the entire winter in Circassia, attempting to draw it into the political orbit of the Ottoman Empire or win it over to his side. These expeditions were typically accompanied by heavy fighting, the destruction of settlements, and the capture of thousands of prisoners and livestock, making this period particularly difficult for the Circassians. In many cases, Circassia was forced to resist the superior forces of the Crimean Khanate, which was often supported by the Ottoman Empire. According to R. Trakho, Moscow’s interest in the Caucasus declined after the Time of Troubles, and before the reign of Peter the Great there were almost no significant political or military actions between Russia and the Circassian lands. In 1616, the Ottoman Sultan decided to launch a new campaign through the North Caucasus toward Iranian territory. Crimean Tatar forces moved first through Kabarda, and the arrival of
Janibek Giray prompted the Great Nogai Horde to join the campaign. Around 3,000 Crimeans and 9,000 Nogais from the Ishterekov ulus took part. Further campaigns against Kabarda were undertaken in 1619, 1629, and 1631. Their main goal was to draw the Kabardians to the Crimean side, and these expeditions were accompanied by plundering and devastation of the population and lands. At the same time, the Crimean and Ottoman authorities accused their supporters among the Kabardian feudal elite of treason and of defecting to the side of the Moscow tsar, something that often occurred due to difficult political circumstances. Even after the Ottoman defeat in its struggle with Iran in 1639, the devastating raids of the Crimean khans on Circassia and Kabarda continued. In 1640, a Crimean army of about 14,000 men carried out a winter campaign against the lands of the Circassian prince Adzhikumuk, but he managed to successfully repel the invaders. According to
Evliya Çelebi and
Mustafa Naima, the allied force numbered about ten thousand men. Around mid-January 1644, Kalmyk detachments assaulted the fortified positions of the allied forces. The battle quickly became fierce, and the initial Kalmyk attack succeeded, inflicting heavy casualties on the coalition. In 1699, the Crimean prince and kalga, Shahbaz Giray, was murdered in Circassia at the house of the Besleney prince Temir-Bulat. Reports suggested that he had been poisoned, although another version claimed that he was killed by rebellious Circassians. Suspicion also fell on Khan Davlet Giray, who had earlier used Circassian forces to defeat his rivals. However, the unrest that followed did not subside. The brother of the murdered kalga, Kaplan Giray, under the pretext of avenging Shahbaz Giray, carried out several devastating raids against the mountain regions. Some accounts also suggest that the murder may have been organized by Shahbaz Giray’s own brothers.
18th century The killing of a member of the Giray dynasty prompted retaliation from the
Crimean Khanate. In 1700 and again in 1701, Crimean forces under the command of Shahbaz Giray’s brother Kaplan Giray launched major punitive expeditions into Circassian territory, ostensibly to avenge the murder but also to plunder and capture tribute and slaves. Fearing reprisals and blood vengeance, those held responsible for Shahbaz Giray’s death fled from Besleney to Kabardia. Qaplan I Giray began the campaign in the spring of 1708 and reached Kabarda during the harvest season. Rather than advancing deep into the country, he moved toward the region near
Mount Elbrus and established his camp along the upper reaches of the
Malka River in the area known as Lower Kanzhal. The site had been used by earlier Crimean khans and offered abundant pasture, clean water, and natural protection from the surrounding terrain. Behind the camp lay the Malka River and the nearby Babukin ford, the only easy crossing in the area. The Kabardian princes, led by the supreme prince
Kurghoqo Hatokhshoqo, decided to resist the invasion. A general mobilization was proclaimed, and according to contemporary reports even boys as young as fourteen were called to arms. Kabarda was able to field between 7,000 and 30,000 men, though historians generally estimate the effective force at about 10,000 to 15,000 warriors, many of them noble cavalry. Recognizing that a direct confrontation with the larger Crimean army would be disastrous, the Kabardians attempted negotiations while secretly preparing for resistance. Kurghoqo Hatokhshoqo offered to reduce the tribute, but the Khan rejected the proposal and demanded no fewer than three thousand captives. The Kabardians deliberately prolonged negotiations for nearly three weeks in order to prepare their defenses. Fighting continued for several weeks through repeated engagements and guerrilla-style attacks. According to the Kabardian commander Pshi Tatarkhan Bekmirza, the clashes with the Crimeans lasted between one and two months. Taking advantage of the chaos, Kabardian forces attacked from several directions and overwhelmed the disorganized Crimean troops. The Crimean army was routed, and Khan Qaplan I Giray himself was wounded and forced to flee the battlefield. Later the same year, a larger multi-thousand Crimean army with allied forces entered Circassia and Kabarda. During its retreat with captured spoils, Russian regiments pursued the Crimean forces with the support of Kabardian cavalry; about 22,000 people were captured and 5,000 were killed. Later that year the Kabardians also joined the Russo–Kalmyk campaign against Kuban. During this campaign Kabardian forces provided significant assistance to the Russian army, defeating detachments commanded by
Bakhti Giray, killing 359 of his men and capturing 40 others. In the spring of 1720, the 40,000-strong Crimean army of
Saadet IV Giray appeared on the borders of Kabardia. According to sources, the Crimean Khan undertook his campaign “upon the news and call of his eldest son, Salikh Giray.” In early June 1720, Saadet Giray, through his ambassadors, demanded that the rulers of Greater Kabardia recognize themselves as subjects of the Ottoman Sultan, resettle in Kuban, pay 4,000 yasyrs “for the dishonor of the former khan” (
Qaplan I Giray), and return all the military spoils captured by the Kabardians over the previous twenty years. Attempts by the Kabardian princes to negotiate more lenient terms were rejected, and the Crimean–Ottoman army invaded Kabardia. The Jembulat's actively resisted, resettling with their subjects in the
Kashkhatau tract and building a small fortress there. Despite their relatively small numbers and the defection of the Misost's and Hatokhshoqo's to the Crimean side, the Jembulat's, thanks to the leadership and ability of their leader
Qeytuqo Aslanbech, successfully repelled the onslaught of their enemies until the end of the year. In December 1720, Saadet Giray was forced to retreat beyond the Kuban. Only in mid-January 1721, after the battle on the Nalchik River, during which most of the Baksan nobles went over to the side of Qeytuqey village, were the Crimean troops expelled from the center of Kabarda. In this battle the Crimeans lost no fewer than 360 men killed. Despite the apparent success of the Kashkatau party, Crimea resumed its offensive against the descendants of Jembulat (the Bekmirza's and Qeytuqo's) in the spring of 1721. On January 3, 1721,
Peter I of Russia, in a letter presented to the Kabardian ambassador Saalettirey Sulgan-aliev, guaranteed assistance to the “Kashkatau people.” However, this assistance was never provided. From 1721 to 1724, the Bekmirza's and Qeytuqo's, besieged by the Crimeans in the area of the city of Kashkatau, defended themselves entirely at the expense of their own resources. In 1724, Aslanbech Qeytuqo asked for Military aid for Peter I, after receiving no answer to his request, he strengthened his ties with the new Crimean khan, Mengli II Giray. At this point, the Russian tsar Peter the Great was in favour of the Baksan faction and the Kashkatau party allied with the Crimeans, both parties changing sides in the conflict. In 1726, the Baksan leaders Islambek Misost and other Atazukhin princes capitulated and surrendered to Aslanbech. thus the Kashkatau faction achieved victory against the Russian supported part of Baksan. The Circassians later sent Bakhti Giray’s body to the Crimean khan. He was buried between early April and late May (the beginning of the month of
Shawwal), and his grave is preserved in the
Khan’s Cemetery in
Bakhchisaray. In 1731, Aslan-Giray, a Crimean commander, led an army of approximately 7,000 warriors from Crimea, the Kuban region, and Nogai tribes to retaliate against Kabarda. Their objective was to devastate Kabardian settlements, seize livestock, and assert military dominance in the region. After initial skirmishes, the Crimean forces attempted to cross the Terek River at Zhyryshty. Kabardian forces, numbering around 12,000 men, waited for the enemy to begin their river crossing. Once the Crimean forces were vulnerable in mid-crossing, the Kabardians launched a sudden attack, overwhelming the enemy. The Crimean forces suffered heavy casualties, with many drowning in the river or being cut down by Kabardian cavalry.
Russo-Circassian War (18th century) Regional historians often mark the completion of the Mozdok fortress on July 17 (28), 1763, as the beginning of the Russo-Circassian War, which lasted 101 years. Following the instructions of Catherine II, the fortress was built in a strategic location situated on traditional livestock migration routes. According to Russian claims, one primary reason for building the fortress was to protect Russia's new Christian subjects. A prominent figure among them was Kurghoqo Qanchoqo, a Lesser Kabardian prince who sought Russian protection alongside his subjects and took the baptismal name Andrey Kanchokin-Cherkassky. Kabardian princes viewed the
foundation of Mozdok as an attack on their sovereignty, and in 1764, a delegation led by Prince Qeytuqo Kaysin traveled to St. Petersburg to demand the destruction of the fortress. However, Empress Catherine II refused these demands, stated that Mozdok was Russian territory, which was canceling the independent status previously recognized by the 1739 Treaty of Belgrade. After Russia refused to return the escaped peasants, many Kabardian nobles moved away from the Russian border toward the mountains and formed alliances with Western Circassians, as well as with the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate. In response to the construction of the Mozdok fortress, Kabardian leaders collaborated with Western Circassians, including the Besleney and Chemguy, to plan attacks on Russian fortifications and organized a siege of the
Kizlyar fortress in 1765. During the
Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), Kabardian leaders such as Misost Bematiqo and
Hamirza Qeytuqo sought to maintain their independence and joined the war. In 1769, Kabardian units clashed with Russian troops commanded by General de Medem at the Eshkakon site, located along the upper reaches of the Kuma River. By 1774, a unified military force consisting of Kabardian units and Crimean Tatars gathered along the banks of the Malka River. While volunteers from various surrounding regions joined the cause, the backbone of this army was the heavily armed Kabardian cavalry. During a high-level council meeting involving Shahbaz Giray, Nekrasov Cossack commanders, and local leaders, a coordinated strategy for the assault on Mozdok was finalized. In June 1774, Kabardian forces led by Misost Bematiqo and other leaders engaged the Russian army in a major pitched battle along the banks of the Gundelen River. In the same month, units that included the Kabardian leader Kurghoqo Tatarkhan launched a heavy assault on the Naurskaya redoubt. The forces maintained a siege of this Russian position for twelve hours before withdrawing. Mozdok's presence led to a fierce joint offensive with Crimean forces against the Mozdok until the end of the Russo-Turkish War. On 21 June, 1774, the
Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca was signed. This agreement legally incorporated Kabardian lands into the Russian Empire and ended Kabardian sovereignty in official terms. The Kabardians did not accept this status, arguing that their relationship with Russia was based on friendship or hospitality rather than subjecthood. In 1777 and 1778, Russia built a line of ten main fortresses on Kabardian land. This was the main reason of the
Seven Months' War in 1779. Throughout 1778 and 1779, Kabardians, with their allies from Western Circassia, attacked the line. In the Battle of the Night Assault and the Battle of Qeytuqo Tuasha, they suffered heavy military defeat that killed many prominent Kabardian leaders and 2,000 "finest noble warriors" and forced to sign an oath of loyalty was signed in December. The Kabardians were required to pay a substantial indemnity, including 10,000 rubles and thousands of livestock. By 1784, Russia established four new fortifications in Lesser Kabarda. In response to this pressure, some local leaders joined the movement of Sheikh Mansur in 1785 and moved their settlements to Chechnya. In 1793, the Russian government created "Class Courts" to establish administrative control. Kabardians resisted the Russian control by demanding Sharia courts, which initiated the Sharia Movement in 1794 under the leadership of
Adildjeriy Hatokhshoqo, Ishak Abuqo and Ismail Hatokhshoqo. In 1799, the main leader of this movement, Prince Adildjeriy Hatokhshoqo, fled to Trans-Kuban to organize the resistance. In 1807, the Russian administration acknowledged that military force alone was not achieving its goals in the region. As a result, they temporarily allowed the creation of Sharia courts, known as
mehkeme, to help maintain order and manage local affairs. In the late 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, plague outbreaks occurred in the region. These epidemics are estimated to have destroyed 90% of the population, which fundamentally weakened the ethnic and political structure of Kabarda.
19th century Russo-Circassian War (19th century) The construction of the Kislovodsk fortification in 1803 and the establishment of new Cossack settlements in the Pyatigorsk region increased military pressure by restricting Kabardian transport routes. In May 1804, Kabardian forces conducted defense and counter-attack operations against the advancement of General Glazenap. These military engagements took place along the banks of the Baksan River on May 9 and the Chegem River on May 14. In the same year, 7,000 Kabardian warriors led by Sharia movement leaders, including Adildjeriy Hatokhshoqo and Ishak Abuqo, engaged General Glazenap's army in a major battle along the Malka River. General Glazenap destroyed 92 villages between 1804 and 1805, while Generals Bulgakov and Delpozzo destroyed 200 villages, 111 mosques and seized over 50,000 animals in 1810. During the campaigns of Glazenap and Bulgakov, Russian forces used "
scorched earth" tactics, which the destruction caused widespread famine. A plague epidemic between 1804 and 1825 severely reduced the Kabardian population in Kabardia from approximately 300,000 to nearly 35,000. In 1810, Kabardian cavalry coordinated with Chechen units to launch raids on the Russian-controlled barracks at Priblijnaya and Prohladnaya. These actions were part of a broader effort to disrupt Russian military infrastructure in the region. From 1807 to 1810, Russian forces maintained a central military and economic blockade over Kabardia, during which period armed resistance and clashes continued. Until 1810, leaders like Prince Albaksid Qanchoqo carried out attacks against Russian units near the
Georgian Military Road. The plague epidemic between 1803 and 1811 severely reduced the population. Between 1816 and 1822, General Yermolov implemented a policy based on military force. Yermolov forced the Kabardians along with the warriors relocate to lowland areas and took control of their mountain pastures. In 1818, the construction of the Grozny and Nazran fortifications served to sever communication between Kabardia and Chechnya. The destruction of Tram village in 1818 started a new wave of migration toward Western Circassia. Between 1821 and 1822, intensive Russian campaigns targeted the center of Kabarda. Between 1821 and 1822, Kabardians resisted the new fortifications built by General Yermolov within Kabardia. The resistance fighters retreated to the mountains and used hit-and-run tactics to harass Russian troops as they attempted to establish permanent control over the territory. During this period, numerous military expeditions targeted the center of the region, including operations by the Kotsarev detachment, which conducted months of maneuvers to break Kabardian resistance. By the end of 1822, these intensive campaigns resulted in the complete occupation and annexation of central Kabardia by the Russian Empire. In 1822, the office of the "Grand Prince" in Kabardia was officially abolished. The "Kabardian Provisional Court," which was under Russian administration was established in Nalchik. The last
Grand Prince of Kabardia,
Jankhot Kushuk Bekmirza, was appointed as the first chairman of this court. By the end of 1822, the center of Kabarda was completely occupied by Russia. During this period, between 13,000 and 20,000 Kabardians fled to Trans-Kuban. Between 1810 and 1830, many Kabardian aristocrats who refused to submit to Russian rule moved to free territories in Western Circassia, particularly along the Laba River. These Kabardians are referred to in historical sources as "Hajrets", and they continued their resistance from there. In April 1825, Russian forces destroyed a major Hajret village belonging to Prince
Karamirza Aliy Misost, causing over 1,000 civilian deaths. In September, Hajret forces responded by destroying the village of Soldatskoye. Following the destruction of Soldatskoye, Hajret Kabardian and Western Circassian forces executed a strategic retreat known as the Ice Crossing to escape Russian encirclement. The cavalry units traveled approximately 120 kilometers across the freezing and high-altitude passes of the
Greater Caucasus Range. This maneuver is considered a unique achievement in the history of the
Caucasian War, as the Circassians maintained military discipline under extreme weather conditions and constant pursuit to successfully reach independent territory. In June 1828, a large Circassian cavalry force of 3,000 men, primarily composed of Hajrets, broke through the Russian border line. During this operation, they destroyed the Russian village of Nezlobnoye located in the center of Kabardia. On November 15, 1830, a major raid was launched against the Ersakonskoye fortification. This attack was led by Kabardian nobles living in Western Circassia, such as Muhammad-Mirza Botash. In May 1831, the Hajrets initiated a major two-pronged operation aimed at rescuing the population remaining in occupied Kabardia and relocating them to the independent territories of Trans-Kuban. The first column was led by the brothers Aslandjeriy and Pshimakhua Beslan, while the second was commanded by Muhammad Hatokhshoqo and Bekmirza Dokhshuqo. To counter these persistent insurgencies, the Russian-established "Kabardian Provisional Court" was forced to mobilize two separate local militia units consisting of 800 and 600 men. By the 1830s, Kabarda was under complete Russian military control. Russia's command over the communication routes in Kabardia played a key role in the failure of Imam Shamil's attempts to unite Western Circassia and the Eastern Caucasus during the 1840s and 1850s. In April 1846, Imam Shamil led a military expedition into Kabardia to establish contact with Western Circassians and create a united military line. However, he couldn't receive the expected support from the majority of local Kabardian princes in Kabardia and was forced to retreat to Chechnya after the battles. Following the official end of the war in 1864, a large portion of the surviving Kabardian population was exiled to the Ottoman Empire during the
Circassian genocide. ==Government==