Kam language

Southern Dong Almost 1.5 million speakers of Southern Dong were counted in the 1990 language census, from a total of 2.5 million people in the Dong ethnic group. The Southern Dong live primarily in Rongjiang, Jinping, Liping, Zhenyuan, and Congjiang counties in Guizhou Province; Longsheng, Sanjiang, and Rongshui counties in northeastern Guangxi; and Tongdao County in Hunan Province. Two Dong villages are also located in northern Vietnam, although only one individual in Vietnam is still able to speak Dong. ==Dialects==

The Kam language can be divided into two major subdivisions: Southern Kam and Northern Kam. Northern Kam displays more Chinese influence and lacks vowel length contrast, while Southern Kam is more conservative. Language varieties closely related to or part of Kam include Cao Miao and Naxi Yao. A northern Pinghua variety called Tongdao Pinghua, spoken in Tongdao County, Hunan, has also been significantly influenced by Kam. ;Southern Kam • First lectal area: Róngjiāng Zhānglǔ (), Lípíng Hóngzhōu (), Jǐnpíng Qǐméng () in Guizhou; Tōngdào () in Hunan; Longsheng () and Sanjiang Dudong () in Guangxi • Second lectal area: Lípíng Shuǐkǒu (), Cóngjiāng Guàndòng (), Róngjiāng Píngjiāng () in Guizhou; Sānjiāng Hélǐ () in Guangxi • Third lectal area: Zhènyuǎn Bàojīng () in Guizhou • Fourth lectal area: Róngshuǐ () in Guangxi ;Northern Kam • First lectal area: Tiānzhù Shídòng (), Sānsuì Kuǎnchǎng (), Jiànhé Xiǎoguǎng () in Guizhou; also Jǐnpíng Jiǔzhài () in Guizhou • Second lectal area: Tiānzhù Zhǔxī () in Guizhou • Third lectal area: Jǐnpíng Dàtóng () in Guizhou Long (2012:19-20) classifies the Kam lectal areas (dialects) as follows. ;Southern Kam • Lectal area 1 • Chejiang, Rongjiang County • Longcheng, Tongdao County • Pingdeng, Longsheng County • Chengyang, Sanjiang County • Hongzhou, Liping County • Lectal area 2 • Zhaihao, Rongjiang County • Shuikou, Liping County • Guidong, Congjiang County • Heli, Sanjiang County • Lectal area 3 • Zhaihuai, Rongshui County • Lectal area 4 • Pindong, Rongshui County ;Northern Kam • Lectal area 1 (Highland Dong ) • Shidong, Tianzhu County • Kuanchang, Sansui County • Jiuzhai, Jinping County • Xiaoguang, Jianhe County • Lectal area 2 (River Dong ) • Datong, Jinping County • Sanmentang, Tianzhu County • Lannichong, Jingzhou County • Lectal area 3 • Zhuxi, Tianzhu County • Zhongzhai, Xinhuang County • Lectal area 4 • Qimeng, Jinping County • Lectal area 5 • Baojing, Zhenyuan County In Congjiang County, Dong consists of three dialects: Jiudong (similar to Chejiang Dong), Liudong (similar to Liping Dong), and another dialect spoken in Xishan , Bingmei , and Guandong (similar to Sanjiang Dong) (Congjiang County Gazetteer 1999:109). In Suining County, Hunan, Dong is spoken in Lianfeng (including Duolong ), Huangsangping , Le'anpu , and other nearby locations. In Chengbu County, Hunan, Dong is spoken in Yanzhai , Chang'anying , and Jiangtousi . Kam is also spoken in the single village of Đồng Mộc, Trung Sơn Commune, Yên Sơn District, Tuyên Quang Province, northern Vietnam, where there are about 35 Kam people (Edmondson & Gregerson 2001). The Kam of Đồng Mộc had migrated to Vietnam from China about 150 years ago. The Kam variety spoken in Đồng Mộc is most similar to that of Lípíng Shuǐkǒu () in southeastern Guizhou. In China, a total of seven counties designated as Dong Autonomous Counties (). • Yuping Dong Autonomous County, Guizhou • Sanjiang Dong Autonomous County, Guangxi • Longsheng Various Nationalities Autonomous County, Guangxi • Xinhuang Dong Autonomous County, Hunan • Zhijiang Dong Autonomous County, Hunan • Jingzhou Miao and Dong Autonomous County, Hunan • Tongdao Dong Autonomous County, Hunan Others According to the Shaoyang Prefecture Gazetteer (1997), language varieties closely related to Southern Kam are spoken in Naxi , Dongkou County (which had 4,280 ethnic Yao in 1982 (Chen 2013:39)) and Lianmin , Suining County. However, they are officially classified by the Chinese government as ethnic Yao, not Dong. Chen Qiguang (2013:39) reports that the ancestors of Naxihua speakers had migrated to their current location from Tianzhu, Liping, and Yuping counties of southeastern Guizhou during the early 15th century. ==Phonology and orthography==

Kam has two main orthographies: the Chinese academic developed system and the independently developed system by Ngo Van Lyong for Southern Kam as spoken in Rongjiang. The Chinese system is most commonly used by linguists and has similarities to other Chinese Kra–Dai language orthographies (such as Zhuang). The Ngo Van Lyong system was inspired by the Vietnamese alphabet and is made for speakers and learners. While the Chinese system is the most well known, most Kam speakers are not literate in Kam. Initials The Chinese orthography for Kam orthography has 32 syllable-initial consonants; seven of them (, , , , , and ) only occur in recent loanwords from Chinese. The Ngo Van Lyong orthography for Southern Kam has 28 syllable-initial consonants. Finals The Chinese orthography for Kam has 64 syllable finals; 14 of them occur only in Chinese loans and are not listed in the table below. The phonetic value of the vowel in the finals spelled -ab, -ad and -ag, is in syllables that have the tones -l, -p and -c (see table below); in syllables with tones -s, -t and -x, it is . The phonetic value of the vowel in the finals spelled -eb, -ed and -eg, is in syllables that have the tones -l, -p and -c; in syllables with tones -s, -t and -x, it is . The Ngo Van Lyong orthography for Southern Kam has 116 syllable finals. Tones Kam is a tonal language. Open syllables can occur in one of nine different tones, checked syllables in six tones (so-called entering tones), so that the traditional approach counts fifteen tones. As with the Hmong alphabet, the Chinese orthography marks tones with a consonant at the end of each syllable. The Ngô Văn Lương orthography marks tones via diacritics written above or below the vowel as with the Vietnamese alphabet and only features 6 tones. ==References==