Kere (famine)

Raketa war and first great famine '' sps.), leading to the first . tomentosus'' The cacti (Opuntia ficus-indica, O. tomentosa, O. robusta, O. monacantha, and O. vulgaris), introduced by a French count starting in 1769, had served as a famine food source and barrier to colonial control in southern Madagascar, enabling indigenous anti-colonial fighters (, ) to resist the French for over two decades. The accusations vary considerably. Some accuse the colonial authorities of having a lack of foresight that when the insects were released into the highlands where cactus was not important, they would spread south with disastrous and unforeseen consequences. and that the local administration mobilized to propagate the cochineal. Karen Middleton, writing in the Journal of Southern African Studies, states that "little if any evidence has been published to substantiate the charge". In the three decades after the famine up to independence, the colonial authorities organized the planting of Opuntia in the Deep South that was resistant to the cochineal. The first is called the ('scattered human skeletons') or the ('uncircumcised', since some tribal subgroups ceased the practice of circumcision to commemorate the tragedy). A 2022 study of the experiences of the people of the territory quoted a participant on the legacy of the introduction of the : "Raketa forest... provides us with supplementary food, wood to cook and to build our house, and to feed our animals—thus, when the raketa forest died, part of us also died." Deforestation practices in Anosy Slash-and-burn agriculture and overharvesting of charcoal and cooking wood have led to a serious crisis of deforestation in Madagascar. The land has become barren, making droughts worse and compounding seasonal famine conditions. Pests Periodic plagues of (Malagasy migratory locust, Locusta migratoria capito) damage crops that survive harsh climactic conditions, as do fall armyworms (Spodoptera frugiperda). Weevils and khapra beetles devastate stored food supplies and live crops. == Climate and demography ==

The affects Madagascar's Deep South region—mostly the semiarid Mahafaly plateau, specifically the districts of Ampanihy and Betioky, and the arid sandy lands of Ambovombe, Bekily, Tsihombe, and Beloha. The affected territory experiences an annual temperature range of and mean annual rainfall of . Rainfall is seasonal, with up to a month in the rainy season of December to March, and no rainfall at all in the dry season (lasting from April to September). Dry periods that last for several years are called ('dry rain-season'). The people living in the territory are overwhelmingly poor, with 97% of the population being classified as "very poor" by Madagascar's . The affected region is inhabited mostly by the pastoralist Mahafaly and Antandroy peoples, as well as some Antanosy and Bara, among others. 94% of the people of the Deep South are pastoralists, mostly "subsistence peasants" who rely heavily on the forest for sustenance. Zebu cattle are highly important to the culture and economy of the region. During the , cattle graze on cacti. The -prone zones are hotbeds of violent crime and lawless rule by , cattle-rustling bandits. == Conditions and history ==

Residents of the Deep South describe the as developing in four stages: the (peacetime); the period of scarcity of food for livestock and animals and abundance of food for humans; the period of scarcity of food for humans and abundance of food for livestock; the period of scarcity of food for both livestock and humans. The final stage is the deadliest form of . The durations of events have varied. One event, called ('Digging Bar') in 1997, was felt for less than a year. survivors divide historical events into the categories of "ancient" (pre-1993) and recent (post-1993), with ancient being generally considered more severe among locals. In 2020, UNICEF had expressed early concerns about malnutrition in Madagascar, estimating that 42% of children under the age of five suffered from malnourishment. A World Food Programme (WFP) official said in June 2021 that the situation was the second-worst food crisis he had seen in his life after the 1998 famine in Bahr el Ghazal, in present-day South Sudan. By late June 2021, the WFP reported that 75% of children had abandoned school and were begging or foraging for food. Intense dust storms were further aggravating the circumstances. Humanitarian agencies also warned of water shortages. A water pipeline opened in 2019 (a joint venture of UNICEF and the government of Madagascar) did not reach far enough to provide fresh water to some parts of the south, forcing residents (mainly women) to travel more than 15 kilometers to seek water. On 30 June 2021, the WFP warned that a "biblical" famine was approaching in several African countries, especially in Madagascar. Reports of people eating raw red cactus fruits, wild leaves and locusts for months also arose. In July 2021, UK-based organization SEED Madagascar reported that people were eating "cactuses, swamp plants, and insects", while also reporting that mothers were mixing clay and fruits to feed their families. Evidence of swollen stomachs and physically stunted children were also reported by the organization as symptoms of chronic malnutrition. In July 2021, local media reported that out of the 2.5 million people who live in the southern districts of Madagascar, around 1.2 million were already suffering from food insecurity, while another 400,000, were in a critical situation of famine, citing concerns equal to international organizations such as climate change, COVID-19 and political instability in the country. On 14 July 2021, a government report was issued, stating that the rate of chronic malnutrition was in decline. By late July 2021, however, the situation was described as "famine" by Al Jazeera and Time magazine. Time magazine quoted executive director of the WFP David Beasley as describing the crisis as the first "climate change-caused" famine in modern history. In August 2021, the food crisis was declared by the WFP to be the first famine caused by climate change and not conflict, though this declaration was contradicted by a study released December 2021 by World Weather Attribution. == Impact ==

Each event has killed thousands and sparked mass migrations out of the Deep South. In 1972, a "bloody secessionist rebellion" called the followed a event in the south, in part due to perceived insensitivity and apathy from Madagascar's central government to the plight of the southerners. Residents of the zone report a breakdown of the social fabric of their communities in times of , pointing to increased youth banditry and sex work. events are associated with mass migration as residents flee the famine and outbreaks of crime. The first cut the population of the Deep South in half, and 15% of survivors migrated from the region. == Aid and response ==

being built by USAID and ADRA in collaboration with local communities in southern Madagascar The first emergency management response and international aid program for the was prompted by the "SOS Sud" event of 1993. In late 2020 the Malagasy Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development and the United Nations Development Programme launched a Green Climate Fund–financed readiness program for climate change–influenced conditions, called Medium term planning for adaptation in climate sensitive sectors in Madagascar. The program had a budget of $1.3 million. 2021–2022 famine In June 2021, UNICEF initiated a "Tosika Kere" cash transfer (fiavota) program to aid o’ndaty (inhabitants of the Deep South) affected by the 2021–2022 Kere. The government of President Andry Rajoelina received backlash over the famine. Rajoelina called for a "radical and lasting change" during a summit of the International Development Association in Abidjan, in Ivory Coast. He criticized those who cause climate change by saying that "my compatriots in the South are suffering a heavy toll from the climate crisis in which they did not participate." He promised more help to the south and empowerment of women. In late July 2021, the U.S. embassy further expanded its aid through USAID to more than 100,000 people in the south, providing food to children and pregnant women facing malnutrition. In late August 2021, United Nations coordinator Issa Sanogo warned that the situation was still critical and that a further 500,000 children are at risk in the near future. In October 2022, UNICEF contributed $23 million for children suffering from the famine. == References ==