Uda Toshihiko divides the history of into five periods: the
incipient pieces (1775–1779), early works (1780–1783), gossip pieces (1784–1787), protest pieces (1788–1790), and post-
Kansei Reform works.
Incipient works The first major to be published was , often translated as ''Master Flashgold's Splendiferous Dream'', by
Koikawa Harumachi in 1775. It combined the wit and subject matter of fashionbooks with the graphic nature of the to retell the classic
noh drama in contemporary
Edo. Harumachi started with a prologue, which was common in fashionbooks but virtually nonexistent in . The piece featured realistic dialogue, trendy language, contemporary slang, and modern fashion trends. Through
Master Flashgold, Harumachi created not only a new genre but a new market entirely, with 50 to 60 titles estimated to have been published in the following 2 to 3 years. Initially, print runs were limited, but the high demands lead to the number of copies per run, as well as the number of titles per year, to increase. Another noteworthy piece released by Harumachi during this early phase of was , which he released the following year in 1776.
Early works Continuing his success, Harumachi released many more successful . Other authors were keen to follow his lead, including
Santō Kyōden, Shiba Zenkō,
Ōta Nanpo, and Hōseidō Kisanji, all of whom got their start during this period. Kisanji's threw him into the popular literature spotlight when published in 1781. Early targeted an educated audience with allusions made to "old-fashioned" theatre such as noh and (in
Master Flashgold and
Travelogue) and
kabuki being used as a major plot point in
Dreamers.
Gossip pieces published during this time tended to contain many references to contemporary persons, places and events, as well as heavily featuring social
satire and some political satire. Kyōden's alluded to modern kabuki actors, authors, poets, and courtesans. It also featured political overtones regarding the class system, as the protagonist Enjirō tried desperately to live the life of the
romantic heroes of kabuki plays and ballads, despite being a merchant's son, and by the end of the story, he is firmly put back in his place. Other popular titles of the day included by Ōta Nanpo (1784), by Kyōden (1785), and by Ōta Nanpo (1786)
Protest pieces from this era reversed the proportion of the gossip pieces to feature mainly political satire with social satire in the background. These were written during an intense period of social unrest, as Japan was afflicted with natural catastrophes such as floods, volcanoes, cold weather, earthquakes, drought, and famine, causing high commodity prices that led an estimated one million citizens to starve to death. Additionally, government corruption, fiscal mismanagement, and the threat of class wars were plaguing the nation. This era's reflected popular protest sentiments, but the messages were never outright stated in order to get past censors. Instead, authors used a number of literary devices, such as allegory, asides, and
reductio ad absurdum to code their true messages. The key to the satire of this period was overtone rather than overt statements. Popular subjects to satirize included the
Tokugawa regime, bad blood between
Tanuma Okitsugu and
Sano Zanzaemon Masakoto, devaluation of the silver coin, and
Neo-Confucian policies advocated during the
Kansei Reforms, based on a sampling of major works. While never proven, it is likely that these novels contributed to public outrage and violence. Famous satirical pieces of this era include by Zenkō (1785) (satirizing the devaluation of the silver coin), by Kyōden (1786) (satirizing Neo-Confucian policies), by Kyōden (1788) (satirizing political rivalry between Tanuma Okitsugu and Sano Masakoto), by Kyōden (1788), (mocking the government's inability to manage the famine) • by Kisanji (1788) (satirizing the Neo-Confucian idea that samurai must master both literary and martial arts), by Kyōden (1788) (satirizing Neo-Confucian ideas of usefulness), and by Harumachi (1789) (satirizing the Neo-Confucian idea that samurai must master both literary and martial arts)
Post-Kansei Reforms works In 1791, strict censorship laws ended political satire in by prohibiting the authors from touching on current events and politics in their works. All printed material had to be approved by government appointed censors, and printblocks had to be submitted to a censor and stamped "inspected" before the piece could go to print. Additionally, all publications had to clearly state the names of the author, artist, and publisher to prevent unapproved material from being produced. The government also reprimanded authors of the protest pieces. The first to be punished was Hōseidō Kisanji, who was exiled from Edo. Koikawa Harumachi was contacted, but died before punishment could be enacted. Ōta Nanpo stopped writing, and publisher
Tsutaya Jūzaburō had half of his assets confiscated. Kyōden, undisputedly, was reprimanded most severely. He was brought before the City Magistrate and was forced to recant. He was then shackled and put under house arrest for 50 days. Despite the punishment, he continued to publish for 15 years, but no longer with political overtones. He also released what is considered one of the last masterpieces of the genre, , in 1791. It was written and published after the admonishments of Kisanji, Nanpo, and Harumachi, but before he himself was prosecuted. The last major author to be punished was
Shikitei Sanba. His piece , published in 1799, actually incited physical violence. An Edo fire brigade assailed his residence, as well as the residence of his publisher, ironically enough in protest of the negative portrayal of fire brigades in his story. Due to censorship, works after 1791 lacked the playful spark of earlier . Without political and social satire as fodder, authors were forced to go back to parodying earlier and other written formats.
Decline Many scholars agree that the end of the genre came in 1806, though individual pieces continued to trickle out until as late as 1828. While the Kansei Reforms certainly damaged the industry, it is believed this was not solely responsible for the disappearance of the , but rather that it just sped up the process. Some scholars believe the likely cause of the death of the genre was instead the constant attempts by authors to broaden the reader base by appealing to a wider audience. Initially, were written by educated authors for educated individuals. As authors attempted to expand the reader base across different classes and education levels, the jokes, allusions, and humour were inevitably dumbed down. As author Adam L. Kern notes, "in bending over backwards to expand its readership, the lost its esoteric uniqueness. In this sense, fell victim to its own success." ==Translating ==