Nabataeans The
Nabataeans were among several Arab tribes that originally led a
nomadic existence in the
Arabian Desert, migrating with their herds along established routes in search of pasture and water. Their survival depended on intimate knowledge of seasonal resources, especially in years of drought or insufficient rainfall. The origin of the specific tribe of Arab nomads remains uncertain. One hypothesis locates their original homeland in today's
Yemen, in the southwest of the
Arabian Peninsula, but their deities, language and script share nothing with those of southern Arabia. Another hypothesis argues that they came from the eastern coast of the peninsula. It has also been suggested that they came from the Hejaz area, which is considered to be more convincing, as they share many deities with the ancient people there;
nbṭw, the root consonant of the tribe's name, is found in the early
Semitic languages of Hejaz. Linguistic similarities between the late
Nabataean Arabic dialect and those attested in Mesopotamia during the
Neo-Assyrian period, along with
Assyrian records listing a group called "Nabatu" among rebellious Arab tribes in the region, indicate another possible connection. This evidence suggests that the Nabataeans may have originated in Mesopotamia and migrated westward between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, eventually settling in northwestern Arabia and much of present-day Jordan. Nabataeans have been falsely associated with other groups of people. A people called the "Nabaiti", who were defeated by the
Assyrian King
Ashurbanipal, were associated by some with the Nabataeans because of the temptation to link their similar names. Another misconception is their identification with the
Nebaioth of the
Hebrew Bible, the descendants of
Ishmael,
Abraham's son.
Emergence , when
Petra was the last stop for caravans carrying spices before being shipped to European markets through the
Port of Gaza|241x241px The literate Nabataeans left no lengthy historical texts. However, thousands of inscriptions have been found in their settlements, including graffiti and on minted coins. The Nabataeans appear in historical records from the 4th century BC. Up to that time, the
Qedarites dominated the area and likely controlled the lucrative
frankincense trade. Aramaic
ostraca finds indicate that the
Achaemenid province
Idumaea must have been established before 363 BC, after the failed revolt of
Hakor of
Egypt and
Evagoras I of
Salamis against the
Persians. The establishment of the province meant a significant loss of territory for the Qedarites who had joined the failed revolt and consequently also lost their privileged position in the frankincense trade, where they were presumably replaced by the Nabataeans. It has been argued that either the Nabateans lived mainly outside Idumea and functioned as middlemen to the Persian incense trade, or that the Persians lost interest in Idumea after 400 BC, allowing the Nabataeans to gain prominence in that area. These changes would have allowed the Nabataeans to control the frankincense trade from
Lihyan to
Gaza. The first historical reference to the Nabataeans of significant length is by Greek historian
Diodorus Siculus who lived around 30 BC. Diodorus refers accounts made 300 years earlier by
Hieronymus of Cardia, one of
Alexander the Great's generals, who had a first-hand encounter with the Nabataeans. Diodorus relates how the Nabataeans survived in a waterless desert and managed to defeat their enemies by hiding in the desert until the latter surrendered for lack of water. The Nabataeans dug cisterns that were covered and marked by signs known only to themselves. Diodorus wrote about how they were "exceptionally fond of freedom" and includes an account about unsuccessful raids that were initiated by Greek general
Antigonus I in 312 BC. monastery, located at the ancient capital city of
Petra, Jordan tomb,
Qasr al-Farid, part of
Mada'in Saleh archaeological site, located at
al-Ula,
Hejaz, Saudi Arabia After Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC, his empire split among his generals. During
the conflict between Alexander's generals, Antigonus conquered the
Levant, and this brought him to the borders of
Edom, just north of
Petra. According to Diodorus, Antigonus sought to add "
the land of the Arabs who are called Nabataeans" to his existing territories of
Syria and
Phoenicia. The Nabataeans were distinguished from the other Arab tribes by wealth. The Nabataeans generated revenues from the trade caravans that transported frankincense,
myrrh and other spices from
Eudaemon in today's Yemen, across the Arabian Peninsula, passing through Petra and ending up in the
Port of Gaza for shipment to European markets. Antigonus ordered one of his officers, Athenaeus, to raid the Nabataeans with 4,000 infantry and 600 cavalry, and loot their herds. Athenaeus learned that every year the Nabataeans gathered for a festival during which women, children, and elders were left at "a certain rock" (later interpreted by some as the future city of Petra, by others as
Es-Sela) Athenaeus attacked "the rock" in 312 BC while the Nabataeans were away trading; the inhabitants were taken by surprise, and tonnes of spices and silver were looted. Athenaeus departed before nightfall and made camp to rest 200
stadia away, where they thought they would be safe from Nabataean counter-attack. The camp was attacked by 8,000 pursuing Nabataean soldiers and—as Diodorus describes it—"all the 4,000 foot-soldiers were slain, but of the 600 horsemen about 50 escaped, and of these the larger part were wounded";
Gaza City was the last stop for spices that were carried by
trade caravans before shipment to European markets, giving the Nabataeans considerable influence over the Gazans. Nabataean King
Obodas I regained control of these areas after his forces defeated Jannaeus in the
Battle of Gadara around 93 BC. During the
Battle of Cana in 84 BC, the Seleucid king
Antiochus XII waged war against the Nabataeans. Antiochus was slain during combat, and his army fled and perished in the desert from starvation. After Obodas's victories over the Judaeans and the Seleucids, he was
worshipped as a god by his people. He was buried in the
Temple of Oboda in
Avdat, where inscriptions have been found referring to "Obodas the god". The Nabataean Kingdom was slowly surrounded by the expanding
Roman Empire, which conquered Egypt and annexed Hasmonean
Judea. While the Nabataean kingdom managed to preserve its formal independence, it became a
client kingdom under the influence of Rome. Some epigraphic evidence suggests a military campaign, commanded by
Cornelius Palma, the governor of
Syria. Roman forces seem to have come from Syria and also from
Egypt. It is clear that by 107 Roman legions were stationed in the area around Petra and Bosra, as is shown by a papyrus found in Egypt. The kingdom was annexed by the empire to become the province of
Arabia Petraea. Trade seems to have largely continued thanks to the Nabataeans' undiminished talent for trading. ==Geography==