FDLR insurgency The FDLR counts among its number the original members of the
Interahamwe that led the 1994
Rwandan genocide. Established as a breakaway faction from the
Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR), the FDLR initially sought to transition from a rebel group to a political-military entity dedicated to protecting Rwandan Hutu refugees and their interests in prolonged exile. This transformation enabled the promotion of new officers and the recruitment of fighters from refugee populations in eastern Congo. Some experts, including political scientist Bob Kabamba of the
University of Liège, have suggested that economic motives, such as access to Congo's vast mineral wealth, have played a significant role in Rwanda's involvement in eastern Congo, dating back to its participation in the
First Congo War in 1996. Efforts to disarm and repatriate the FDLR have been ongoing since 2002, involving initiatives by DRC, Rwanda, and the
United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC, later MONUSCO). On 31 March 2005, FDLR representatives in
Rome declared their willingness to cease military action against Rwanda and return home. On 18 September, FDLR leader
Sylvestre Mudacumura, who had been targeted by an
International Criminal Court (ICC) arrest warrant since July 2012, was killed by the Congolese military. In December 2023, Colonel Ruvugayimikore, also known as Ruhinda, the head of the FDLR's CRAP unit and regarded as one of its most skilled fighters, was also killed under unclear circumstances. By the 2020s, many analysts argued that the FDLR no longer posed a significant direct threat to Rwanda.
Intra-Banyamulenge political and military divisions During the late 1990s and early 2000s, Pacifique Masunzu rose to prominence as one of the most "divisive figures" among Banyamulenge. Although he initially sympathized with the FRF, Masunzu had tense relationships with his Rwandan commanders. In early 1999, Colonel Dan Gapfizi, then the RPA commander in
Uvira, ordered his arrest. With help from other Banyamulenge soldiers, Masunzu escaped and sought refuge in the
Bijombo groupement of
Bavira Chiefdom in
Uvira Territory, and to limit internal dissent, the RCD later brought him back into its ranks and appointed him as deputy battalion commander in the highlands, but this compromise proved short-lived. In January 2002, following a conflict with his direct commander, Safari, Masunzu again broke away. Masunzu publicly endorsed the Congolese government's position that Burundian
Forces nationales de libération (FNL) rebels were responsible and downplayed the ethnic dimension of the killings, suggesting it "targeted RCD supporters more than Banyamulenge".:14–24 Nkunda was appointed as the group's commander in North Kivu but declined to attend his
swearing-in in
Kinshasa, citing security concerns. Analysts suggested Rwanda positioned Nkunda as a proxy to retain its control over the eastern DRC. Despite these allegations, Nkunda was never investigated. In early 2003, he established the political movement
Synergie pour la Paix et la Concorde, which was formally launched in
Bukavu in December of that year, with its operational base set up in
Goma.
2004 Bukavu offensive Tensions escalated after the February 2004 arrest of Officer Joseph Kasongo in South Kivu for his alleged involvement in the
assassination of President Laurent-Désiré Kabila. This event triggered armed clashes between the national army and RCD-Goma forces, culminating in a ten-day siege of Bukavu. Reports from local sources suggested the presence of Rwandan military personnel assisting RCD-Goma forces, though Rwanda denied any involvement. The retreat led to a split within Nkunda's army, with a faction led by Colonel
Jules Mutebusi fleeing to Rwanda. By December 2004, internal divisions within RCD-Goma deepened, particularly as local Tutsi leaders denounced the manipulation of
Banyarwanda identity and declared their support for the
central government. This internal schism led North Kivu's Governor Eugène Serufuli to realign with Kinshasa. killing at least 25 civilians and leading to further casualties in Kitchanga and
Tongo groupement of Bwito Chiefdom. Mass graves were later discovered near Tingi, outside Sake. Unable to mount an effective defense, FARDC turned to MONUSCO peacekeepers for support. On 7 December, CNDP forces attacked FARDC positions in Nord Kivu, but with military backing from MONUSCO, FARDC managed to reclaim its positions, killing around 150 CNDP fighters. The violence forced approximately 12,000 Congolese civilians to flee to
Kisoro District, Uganda. That same day, a rocket fired from the DRC struck Kisoro District, which killed seven people.
2007 In early 2007, the central DRC government attempted to reduce the threat posed by Nkunda by trying to integrate his troops further into the
FARDC, the national armed forces, in what was called a
mixage process. However, this backfired and it now appears that from about January to August Nkunda controlled five brigades of troops rather than two. On 24 July 2007, the UN peacekeeping head
Jean-Marie Guehenno stated, "Mr Nkunda's forces are the single most serious threat to stability in the DR Congo". However, by August 2007, the initiative had failed, exacerbating human rights violations, particularly against the
Hutu population. That same month, Nkunda's men "raided ten secondary schools and four primary schools where they took the children by force in order to make them join their ranks". According to the
United Nations, boys were turned into soldiers while girls were subjected to
sexual slavery, in violation of international law. In the aftermath of the UN report, thousands of Congolese civilians fled their homes, seeking refuge in displacement camps. The situation was further complicated by the rise of competing militias, notably the
Patriotes Résistants Congolais (PARECO). This group, composed of CNDP defectors and Hutu fighters, emerged as a strong adversary to CNDP, with its leadership accusing the national army of collaborating with opposing forces. In early November 2007, Nkunda's forces seized control of
Nyanzale, located approximately 100 km (62 mi) north of Goma. Three nearby villages were also reported to have been captured, and the army's outpost was left unguarded. A government offensive in early December led to the 82nd Brigade taking Mushake, a town that overlooks an important road. However,
Reuters reported that the town was taken by the FARDC's 14th integrated brigade. This came after MONUSCO announced it would provide artillery support to the FARDC during the offensive. At a regional conference in
Addis Ababa, the
United States, Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda committed to backing the Congolese government while refusing to support what they referred to as "negative forces", a term widely interpreted as a reference to Nkunda's forces. Nkunda stated on 14 December 2007 that he was open to peace talks. The government called such talks on 20 December to be held from 27 December to 5 January. These talks were then postponed to be held from 6–14 January 2008.
January 2008 peace deal Nkunda's group attended the talks, but walked out on 10 January 2008, after an alleged attempted arrest of one of their members. They later returned to the talks. The talks' schedule was extended to last until 21 January, and then to 22 January as an agreement appeared to be within reach. It was further extended to 23 January over final disagreements regarding war crimes cases. The peace deal was signed on 23 January and included provisions for an immediate ceasefire, the phased withdrawal of all rebel forces in North Kivu, the resettlement of thousands of villagers, and immunity for Nkunda's forces. The agreement encouraged FARDC and the United Nations to remove FDLR forces from Kivu. Dissatisfaction with progress and lack of resettlement of refugees caused the CNDP forces to declare war on the FDLR and hostilities to resume, including civilian atrocities. Neither the
Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda nor the Rwandan government took part in the talks, a fact which may hurt the stability of the agreement.
Fall 2008 fighting On 26 October, the CNDP captured the
Rumangabo military base and
Virunga National Park, using the park as a staging ground for further attacks. This happened after the peace agreement failed, leading to battles that displaced thousands of people. The FARDC also retreated in what was seen as a "major retreat" under the pressure from the CNDP. Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General for DRC
Alan Doss explained the necessity of engaging the rebels, stating that "...[the UN] can't allow population centers to be threatened... [the UN] had to engage". On 28 October, rebels and combined government-MONUSCO troops battled between the Kibumba refugee camp and
Rutshuru. Five
rockets were fired at a convoy of MONUSCO vehicles protecting a road to the territorial capital of
Rutshuru, hitting two
armored personnel carriers. The APCs, which contained
Indian Army troops, were relatively undamaged, though a Lieutenant Colonel and two other personnel were injured. Rebel forces later captured the town. Meanwhile, civilians continued to riot, at some points pelting retreating Congolese troops with rocks, though UN spokeswoman Sylvie van den Wildenberg stated that the UN has "reinforced [their] presence" in the region. By 29 October, the CNDP had seized control of large areas of the Masisi and Rutshuru territories with minimal resistance. As the CNDP advanced, they began dismantling
internally displaced persons (IDP) camps, such as those in Kasasa and Nyongera. The
United Nations Security Council issued a unanimous non-binding resolution condemning the recent rebel advances and demanding an end to them. Despite the ceasefire, World Vision workers had to flee to the Rwandan border to continue their work, while gunfire was still heard. The
United States Department of State sent
Jendayi Frazer, the
Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, as an envoy to the region. On 30 October, the CNDP officially took control of Kiwanja, and Nkunda called for direct talks with the Congolese government, saying he would take Goma "if there is no ceasefire, no security, and no progress in the peace process". The next day, 31 October, the CNDP appointed Jules Simpenzwe as the new territorial administrator. Military experts later argued that the CNDP's main target in its late October offensive was
Rutshuru, not Goma. Also, on 31 October, British Foreign Minister
David Miliband and French Foreign Minister
Bernard Kouchner flew to the region, with the intention of stopping in Kinshasa, Goma, and possibly Kigali. Between 4 and 5 November, Human Rights Watch estimated that CNDP forces executed at least 150 people in Kiwanja. Many of the victims had gunshot wounds to the head or injuries from machetes, spears, or clubs, indicating
extrajudicial killings rather than casualties from combat. In the weeks after the CNDP took Kiwanja and Rutshuru, CNDP fighters also raped at least 16 women and girls.
2009–2012: Ihusi agreement, Operation Umoja Wetu, and 23 March 2009 agreement International diplomatic efforts, combined with pressure on both Kinshasa and Kigali, eventually led to negotiations between the DRC and Rwanda. These talks culminated in the signing of the Ihusi Agreement on 16 January 2009. Nkunda, caught by surprise, was unable to resist this change. On 16 January 2009, Ntaganda publicly declared the CNDP's integration into the Congolese army during a ceremony in Goma, attended by both the Rwandan
Defence Minister and the Congolese
Interior and Security Minister. However, the integration process was fraught with difficulties, as many CNDP officers retained significant control in the Kivus. Operation Umoja Wetu was marked by significant human rights abuses, with both government and former rebel forces committing atrocities. Between January and September 2009,
Human Rights Watch reported over 1,400 civilian deaths, primarily women, children, and the elderly, often accompanied by widespread sexual violence. In the first nine months of 2009, health centers in North and South Kivu recorded over 7,500 cases of sexual violence, nearly double the previous year's numbers. Ntaganda emerged as a key figure in the post-integration period, securing the role of deputy commander in government operations against the FDLR. He leveraged this position to appoint former CNDP officers to strategic roles, particularly in the mineral-rich regions of Nyabibwe, Bisie, and Bibatama, expanding their influence over mining operations. In April 2012, former
National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP) soldiers mutinied against the government. The mutineers formed a rebel group called the
March 23 Movement (M23). Former CNDP commander
Bosco Ntaganda, known as "the Terminator" is accused of founding the movement. On 4 April, it was reported that Ntaganda and 300 loyal troops defected from the DRC and clashed with government forces in the
Rutshuru region north of
Goma.
Africa Confidential said on 25 May 2012 that "the revolt now seems to be as much about resisting an attempt by Kinshasa to disrupt CNDP networks in the restive Kivu provinces, a process of which Ntaganda may find himself a casualty." On 20 November 2012, the M23 took control of Goma after the national army retreated westward. MONUSCO, the United Nations peacekeeping force, watched the takeover without intervening, stating that its mandate allowed it only to protect civilians. M23 withdrew from Goma in early December following negotiations with the government and regional powers. On 24 February 2013, leaders of 11 African nations signed an agreement designed to bring peace to the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The M23 rebels were not represented in the deal's negotiations or at the signing. Makenga declared himself interim leader and clashes between those loyal to him and those loyal to Jean-Marie Runiga Lugerero, who is allied with Bosco Ntaganda, have killed ten men and two others were hospitalized. In March 2013, the United Nations
Security Council authorized the deployment of an intervention brigade within MONUSCO to carry out targeted offensive operations, with or without the
Congolese national army, against armed groups that threaten peace in eastern DRC. It is the first peacekeeping unit tasked with carrying out offensive operations. The last batch of the Malawi troops committed to the MONUSCO
Force Intervention Brigade arrived in Goma, North Kivu province, on 7 October 2013. They will be part of the 3000- strong force to which Tanzania and South Africa are the other two troop contributing countries. Since the arrival of its first troops in June 2013, the Intervention Brigade has already gone into action resulting in the withdrawal of M23, from its initial positions in
Kanyaruchinya, on 31 August 2013. The Intervention Brigade is now at its full strength with the arrival of the Malawi infantry battalion. Tanzania, South Africa and Malawi have been picked for the UN Stabilization Mission in DR Congo (MONUSCO) because of the wide experience they gained in other UN Peacekeeping missions. For instance, 95 percent of the Malawi troops have been already in peacekeeping missions in Kosovo, Liberia, Rwanda, Sudan, and they are well prepared to face any operational challenges.
M23 resurgence Gold mines Tantalum, tungsten or tin mines From 28 March 2022, the M23 Movement launched a
new offensive in North Kivu, allegedly with Rwandan and Ugandan support. The offensive resulted in the displacement of tens of thousands of refugees, while the rebels had been able to capture some territory by June.
United Nations experts sound alarm In July 2024, a
United Nations Security Council-commissioned report revealed extensive Rwandan military activities in the
Nyiragongo,
Rutshuru, and
Masisi territories.
2025 offensives On 27 January 2025, M23 claimed to have
captured Goma. In January 2025, the
DRC severed diplomatic ties with Rwanda. On 27 June 2025, the DRC and Rwanda signed a peace agreement to end the conflict following negotiations mediated by the United States.
2015–2016: Operations against FDLR and other armed groups caused by fighting between FARDC and APCLS rebels in 2013 In January 2015, it was reported that UN and Congo troops were preparing an offensive on FDLR in the Kivu region, while striking
FNL-Nzabampema positions on Eastern Congo on 5 January 2015. Several days earlier an infiltration by an unknown rebel group from Eastern Congo to Burundi left 95 rebels and 2 Burundi soldiers dead. On 25 January 2015, 85 Raïa Mutomboki rebels surrendered to the authorities in the town of
Mubambiro, North Kivu; the former militants will be gradually integrated into FARDC. Earlier in January, Raïa Mutomboki, founder Nyanderema, approached the town of
Luizi with a group of 9 fighters, announcing their abandonment of armed struggle. 24 rifles, 2 grenades and other military equipment was transferred to FARDC during the two incidents. On 31 January, the DRC troops launched a campaign against the FDLR
Hutu rebels. On 13 March 2015, a military spokesman announced that a total of 182 FDLR rebels were killed since the start of the January offensive. Large amounts of weaponry and ammunition were seized, as the army recaptured the towns of Kirumba Kagondo, Kahumiro, Kabwendo, Mugogo, Washing 1 and 2, Kisimba 1, 2 and 3, among other locales. In January 2016, fighting broke out between the FDLR, ADF and Mai-Mai militias, which resulted in thousands fleeing to surrounding areas in North Kivu's Goma.
Ethnic Mai Mai factions Ethnic conflict in Kivu has often involved the Congolese Tutsis known as
Banyamulenge, a cattle herding group of Rwandan origin derided as outsiders, and other ethnic groups who consider themselves indigenous. Additionally, neighboring Burundi and Rwanda, who have a thorny relationship, are accused of being involved, with Rwanda accused of training Burundi rebels who have joined with Mai Mai against the Banyamulenge and the Banyamulenge is accused of harboring the RNC, a Rwandan opposition group supported by Burundi. In June 2017, the group, mostly based in
South Kivu, called the National People's Coalition for the Sovereignty of Congo (CNPSC) led by
William Yakutumba was formed and became the strongest rebel group in the east, even briefly capturing a few strategic towns. The rebel group is one of three alliances of various
Mai-Mai militias and has been referred to as the Alliance of Article 64, a reference to Article 64 of the constitution, which says the people have an obligation to fight the efforts of those who seek to take power by force, in reference to President Kabila.
Bembe warlord Yakutumba's Mai-Mai Yakutumba is the largest component of the CNPSC and has had friction with the
Congolese Tutsis who often make up commanders in army units. In 2015, the army then launched an offensive against the FDLR militia. The FDLR and Nyatura were accused of killing
Nande people The Nande-dominate UPDI militia, a Nande militia called Mai-Mai Mazembe and a militia dominated by
Nyanga people, the "
Nduma Defense of Congo" (NDC), also called Maï-Maï Sheka and led by
Gédéon Kyungu Mutanga, are accused of attacking Hutus. In North Kivu, in 2017, an alliance of Mai-Mai groups called the National Movement of Revolutionaries (MNR) began attacks in June 2017 includes
Nande Mai-Mai leaders from groups such as Corps du Christ and Mai-Mai Mazembe. In September 2019, the army declared it had killed Sylvestre Mudacumura, head of the FDLR, and in November that year the army declared it had killed Juvenal Musabimana, who had led a splinter group of the FDLR.
2017–2021: ADF and Islamic insurgency Approximately 1.7 million were forced to flee their homes in the DR Congo in 2017 as a result of intensified fighting. The assault, in terms of fatalities, was the most severe suffered by peacekeepers since an ambush in Somalia in 1993. Analysts felt that the size and scale of the attack was unprecedented, but that it represented another step in the conflict which has been prevalent in the region for many years. The motivation for the attack was unknown, but it was expected to further destabilise the region. The Congolese forces claimed that the
Islamist ADF lost 72 militants in the attack, raising the total number of fatalities in excess of 90. • 21 October 2018, ADF rebels attacked the town of Matete, just north of Beni, resulting in 11 civilians killed and 15 people were kidnapped (ten of which were children ages five to ten years old). This prompted aid workers to suspend efforts to roll back an outbreak of deadly Ebola. In addition, on 16 December 2018, Maï-Maï militiamen attacked the Independent National Electoral Commission (CENI) warehouse in Beni ahead of 23 December election, security forces repel attackers without suffering casualties. According to the Congo Research Group (a study project at New York University), as of 2018, 134 armed groups are active in North and South Kivu. On 31 October 2019, the Congolese army launched a large scale offensive against the ADF in the
Beni Territory of the North Kivu Province. According to spokesman General Leon Richard Kasonga, "The DRC armed forces launched large-scale operations overnight Wednesday to eradicate all domestic and foreign armed groups that plague the east of the country and destabilize the Great Lakes region." The operation is being carried out by the FARDC without any foreign support. The focus is primarily on the ADF but also other armed groups are being targeted. On 13 January 2020, the Congolese army raided ADF's headquarters camp, nicknamed "Madina", which is located near Beni. 30 Congolese soldiers were killed and 70 were wounded in the intense battle with ADF. 40 ADF insurgents were also reported killed, including five top commanders. The Congolese army nevertheless captures the camp, but fails to apprehend the target of the raid, ADF leader Musa Baluku. On 26 May 2020, at least 40 civilians were killed with machetes by the ADF in Ituri province. On 16 September 2020, the DRC and 70 armed groups active in South Kivu agreed to cease hostilities. On 20 October 2020, more than 1,300 prisoners escaped from a jail in Beni after an attack claimed by the ISCAP (
Islamic State's Central Africa Province). On 26 October 2020, The Congolese armed forces took control of the headquarters of Burundi rebel group
National Forces of Liberation (NFL) after three days of intense fighting. The army also said they fought some members of the National Resistance Council for Democracy (NRCD). Troops killed 27 rebels, seizing arms and ammunition, while three soldiers died in the fighting, with another four wounded. Now the rebels are fleeing toward the forests of Muranvia, Nyaburunda and Kashongo as well as the Nyanzale Rudaga valley. On 31 December 2020,
Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) massacred 25 civilians in the village of Tingwe. On 1 January 2021, the village of Loselose was recaptured by
DRC after a battle between Congolese army, supported by UN peacekeepers and
ADF. Two Congolese soldiers and 14 Islamist militants were killed, seven Congolese soldiers were wounded. On 4 January 2021, ADF attacked villages of Tingwe, Mwenda and Nzenga and killed 25 civilians and kidnapped several others. DRC authorities also discovered 21 civilian bodies "in a state of decomposition" in Loselose and Loulo. On 4 February 2021,
ISIS operatives exchanged fire with Congolese soldiers in the Rwenzori region, on the border between the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda. Three soldiers were killed and several others were wounded. The other soldiers fled. ISIS operatives seized vehicles, weapons and ammunition. On 22 February 2021, the Italian ambassador to DR Congo
Luca Attanasio, an Italian
law enforcement official and a driver were killed in an attack on a UN convoy near the town of Kanyamahoro, 16 kilometers north of Goma. On 26 February 2021, IS operatives killed at least 35 Congolese soldiers and wounded many more after a Congolese army force approached IS positions in Losilosi, in the Beni region. On 6 March 2021, IS militants attacked Congolese forces in a village in the Irumu region. During the attack, at least 7 soldiers were killed and the rest fled. IS operative seized weapons and ammunition. On 31 March 2021, ADF militants linked to ISIS, massacred 23 civilians after attacking a village in the Beni region. On 9 April 2021, two civilian trucks transporting Christian civilians were targeted by
ISIL gunfire southeast of Beni. 5 of the passengers were killed. A Congolese soldier was also shot dead in the area on the same day. On 23 April 2021, Congolese army camps were targeted by ISCAP militants in the Oicha region. One Congolese soldier was killed in the attacks. On 30 April 2021, president Felix Tshisekedi declared a "
state of siege" over the province of North Kivu that went into effect on 6 May. The state of siege will last for 30 days in which the province will be under
military rule. On 5 May 2021, the FARDC attacked and captured the village of
Nyabiondo from APCLS. During the fighting a woman was wounded. On 24 May 2021, ISIS operatives attacked a Congolese army camp near Kanjabai Prison, in the Beni region, about 50 km west of the Congo-Uganda border. Two soldiers were killed in the exchange of fire. ISIS operatives set fire to the camp. On 29 June 2021, two Congolese soldiers were killed after ISCAP attacked their positions in the Ituri region. On 29 July 2021, ISCAP militants attack a convoy of Christian civilians on the Ituri-Beni highway, killing one civilians and destroying 6 vehicles. On 9 August, ISIL forces took control of the villages of Mavivi and Malibungo in the Ituri region, killing at least one Congolese soldier and capturing 3 others. On 13 September, ISCAP forces attacked a village in the Ituri region, burning down the homes of several Christians and executing at least one Congolese soldier. ==Human rights abuses==