Kiwifruit

In 1959, Turners & Growers, a major New Zealand exporter, began using the name "kiwifruit" after being advised by a United States client, Norman Sondag, that products with the name Chinese gooseberry may have been having difficulty passing through quarantine. Sondag believed that quarantine officials were more suspicious of European gooseberries and other berry shipments, due to fears that berries that were grown closer to the ground could come into contact with soil contaminated with anthrax-causing Bacillus anthracis, something that was not an issue with kiwifruit. The name kiwifruit was coined by Jack Turner of Turners & Growers, referencing kiwi, an informal name used to describe New Zealanders, which Turner felt that American servicemen stationed in the Pacific during World War II would prefer. In the United States and Canada, the shortened name kiwi is commonly used when referring to the fruit. Numerous myths are associated with the naming of kiwifruit, including that it is a reference to New Zealand's furry, brown, national bird – the kiwi, or that the name Chinese gooseberry was replaced in response to anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States. ==History==

Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China. The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to 12th century China during the Song dynasty. Common Chinese names for the fruit prior to the 20th century include (, ), (, ), (, ) and (, ). Among the early English language names for the fruit were yangtao, the name that was in popular use in the Yangtze River valley areas of central China, Wilson's gooseberry (after British plant collector Ernest Henry Wilson), gooseberry vine, and Ichang gooseberry, the latter referring to Yichang, a port city in Hubei province. Cultivation of Chinese gooseberries spread from China in the early 20th century to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred. During this time, the name kiwifruit was adopted by New Zealand exporters. The New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board was later renamed Zespri International Limited in 1997. This rebranding marked a strategic move to enhance global recognition and market presence. By the early 1980s, China began cultivating kiwifruit commercially, initially planting less than one hectare with the 'Hayward' cultivar from New Zealand. Over the following decades, China's kiwifruit industry expanded significantly, and by 2020, 'Hayward' accounted for only 6.3% of total plantings, as domestically bred cultivars gained prominence. Among these are 'Hongyang', a red-fleshed kiwifruit selected in Sichuan from seedlings raised from wild-collected seeds, 'Jinyan', a yellow-fleshed variety, and 'Donghong', another red-fleshed cultivar, also known as Oriental Red. ==Species and cultivars==

The genus Actinidia comprises around 60 species. Their fruits are quite variable, although most are easily recognised as kiwifruit because of their appearance and shape. The skin of the fruit varies in size, hairiness, and colour. The flesh varies in colour, juiciness, texture, and taste. Some fruits are unpalatable, while others taste considerably better than most commercial cultivars. Fuzzy kiwifruit Most kiwifruit sold belongs to a few cultivars of Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit): 'Hayward', 'Blake' and 'Saanichton 12'. It was initially grown in domestic gardens, but commercial planting began in the 1940s. 'Hayward' is the most commonly available cultivar in stores. It is a large, egg-shaped fruit with a sweet flavour. 'Saanichton 12', from British Columbia, is somewhat more rectangular than 'Hayward' and comparably sweet, but the inner core of the fruit can be tough. 'Blake' can self-pollinate, but has a smaller, more oval fruit, and the flavour is considered inferior. Gold kiwifruit The gold kiwifruit, also known as the yellow kiwi or golden kiwifruit, has smooth, bronze skin, with a beak shape at the stem attachment. Gold varieties are typically cultivars of Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis. The flesh colour varies from bright green to a clear, intense yellow. This species is 'sweeter and more aromatic' in flavour compared to Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa. A new cultivar of golden kiwifruit, Gold3, was found to be more disease-resistant, and most growers have now changed to this cultivar. 'Gold3', marketed by Zespri as SunGold is not quite as sweet as 'Hort16A', and lacks its usually slightly pointed tip. Clones of the new variety SunGold have been used to develop orchards in China, resulting in partially successful legal efforts in China by Zespri to protect their intellectual property. In 2021, Zespri estimated that around 5,000 hectares of Sungold orchards were being cultivated in China, mainly in the Sichuan province. Jintao is a variety of golden kiwifruit developed in China from wild Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis vines. Created in the 1980s by researchers at the Wuhan Botanical Garden, it was introduced to Europe for evaluation in 1998 through an EU-funded project (INCO-DC). Between 1998 and 2000, it was evaluated in collaboration with institutions such as I.N.R.A. in Bordeaux (France), the University of Thessaloniki (Greece), and the University of Udine (Italy). Jintao was later released to European kiwifruit growers for commercial propagation in 2001. In the same year, exclusive breeding rights for the variety were sold to the Italian company Jingold, and production subsequently expanded to multiple locations across Portugal, Chile, Argentina, and South Africa over the following two decades. Red kiwifruit Red kiwifruits are cultivars of Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis, distinguished by their red coloured flesh. Its origin can be traced back to China from a natural mutation of gold kiwifruit found in the wild in 1982, which became the Hongyang variety, China's first commercially viable red kiwifruit cultivar. By 2020, Hongyang became the most grown kiwifruit cultivar in China across all types and varieties. Zespri RubyRed, which was independently bred in New Zealand in 2007, and EnzaRed, a cultivar that descends from the Hongyang variety grown by Turners & Growers in New Zealand. ==Cultivation==

Kiwifruit can be grown in most temperate climates with adequate summer heat. Where fuzzy kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa) is not hardy, other species can be grown as substitutes. Breeding Often in commercial farming, different breeds are used for rootstock, fruit-bearing plants, and pollinators. Therefore, most kiwifruits, except rootstock and new cultivars, are propagated asexually. Kiwifruit growers rely on honey bees, the principal 'for-hire' pollinator, but commercially grown kiwifruit is notoriously difficult to pollinate. The flowers are not very attractive to honey bees, partly because the flowers do not produce nectar, and bees quickly learn to prefer flowers with nectar. Honey bees are inefficient cross-pollinators for kiwifruit because they practice "floral fidelity". Each honey bee visits only a single type of flower in any foray and maybe only a few branches of a single plant. The pollen needed from a different plant (such as a male for a female kiwifruit) might never reach it were it not for the cross-pollination that principally occurs in the crowded colony; it is in the colonies that bees laden with different pollen cross paths. To deal with these pollination challenges, some producers blow collected pollen over the female flowers. Once a kiwifruit is ripe, however, it is preserved optimally when stored far from other fruits, as it is sensitive to the ethylene gas they may emit, thereby tending to over-ripen even in the refrigerator. In 2010 it was found in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty Region kiwifruit orchards in the North Island. The yellow-fleshed cultivars were particularly susceptible. New, resistant varieties were selected in research funded by the government and fruit growers so that the industry could continue. Scientists reported they had worked out that the strain of PSA affecting kiwifruit from New Zealand, Italy, and Chile originated in China. Early sex identification In 2020, the Wuhan Botanical Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Sciences patented a method for the early identification of the sex of kiwifruit plants. Kiwifruit plants are dioecious, meaning they have separate male and female plants. Crosses between male and female genotypes typically produce male and female offspring in a 1:1 ratio, regardless of ploidy level. Since only female plants bear fruit, male plants are unproductive in commercial breeding programmes, though they are required for pollination to produce the desired amount of fruit. Maintaining male seedlings beyond the sex ratio required for pollination (one male vine for every three to eight female vines) consumes land, labour, and resources without contributing to fruit yield. The breeding process is further hindered by the species' long generation cycle, spanning at least three growing seasons and a period of winter dormancy. Managing large breeding populations over extended periods is resource-intensive, especially for fruit crops like kiwifruit, which require expensive support infrastructure. To address these challenges, there is a pressing need for sex-linked molecular markers. Early identification of plant sex at the seedling stage enables the efficient removal of male plants, reducing resource waste and improving breeding efficiency. ==Production==

In 2023, world kiwifruit production was 4.4 million tonnes, led by China with 55% of the total (table). In China, kiwifruit is grown mainly in the mountainous area upstream of the Yangtze River, as well as Sichuan. Other major producers were New Zealand and Italy (table). Production history New Zealand Kiwifruit exports rapidly increased from the late 1960s to the early 1970s in New Zealand. By 1976, exports exceeded the amount consumed domestically. Outside of Australasia, New Zealand kiwifruit are marketed under the brand-name label Zespri. The general name, "Zespri", has been used for the marketing of all cultivars of kiwifruit from New Zealand since 2012. In 1990, the New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board opened an office for Europe in Antwerp, Belgium. China In 1978, China began developing its own kiwifruit cultivars. The Wuhan Botanical Garden, part of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), played a large role in breeding and improving domestic varieties suited to local conditions. Commercial cultivation initially began in the early 1980s on less than one hectare using the Hayward variety from New Zealand. But by 2020, kiwifruit orchards had expanded to 290,000 hectares, and 'Hayward' accounted for only 6.3% of the total planting area, as domestically bred varieties gained prominence. To support commercialisation and branding, CASGOLD, the first CAS-backed agricultural brand, was created. By 2023, China had become the world's largest kiwifruit producer, surpassing Italy and New Zealand. However, most of its kiwifruit is consumed domestically, with little exported. ==Human consumption==

with strawberries, passionfruit, kiwifruit and cream Kiwifruit may be eaten raw, made into juices, used in baked goods, prepared with meat, or used as a garnish. Sliced kiwifruit is often used as a garnish on top of whipped cream on pavlova, a meringue-based dessert. Traditionally in China, kiwifruit was not eaten for pleasure but was given as medicine to children to help them grow and to women who had given birth to help them recover. and possibly as a digestive aid. Actinidain also makes raw kiwifruit unsuitable for use in desserts containing milk or any other dairy products because the enzyme digests milk proteins. This applies to gelatine-based desserts since the actinidain will dissolve the proteins in gelatine, causing the dessert to either liquefy or prevent it from solidifying. Nutrition Raw green kiwifruit is 83% water and 15% carbohydrates, with negligible protein and fat (table). In a reference amount of , kiwifruit provides 61 calories of food energy, and is rich (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) in vitamin C (103% DV) and vitamin K (34% DV), with moderate content of vitamin E (10% DV), copper (14% DV), and potassium (10% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content (green, table). Gold kiwifruit has similar nutritional content, but contains a higher level of vitamin C (179% DV) and insignificant vitamin K (gold, table). Both types of kiwifruit supply dietary fibre. Kiwifruit seed oil contains, on average, 62% alpha-linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid. Kiwifruit pulp contains carotenoids, such as provitamin A beta-carotene, lutein and zeaxanthin. European health claim In July 2025, following an application by Zespri International Ltd. and scientific review in 2021 by the European Food Safety Authority, the European Commission authorised a health claim: "consumption of green kiwifruit contributes to normal bowel function by increasing stool frequency," when at least 200 g of fresh Hayward green kiwifruit are consumed daily. Allergies Allergy to kiwifruit was first described in 1981 and there have since been reports of the allergy presenting with numerous symptoms from localised oral allergy syndrome to life-threatening anaphylaxis. The enzyme actinidain found in kiwifruit can be an allergen for some individuals, with the most common symptoms ranging from an unpleasant itching and soreness of the mouth to wheezing as the most common severe symptom. ==References==