Knee replacement

Knee replacement surgery is most commonly performed in people with advanced osteoarthritis and should be considered when conservative treatments have been exhausted. Total knee replacement is also an option to correct significant knee joint or bone trauma in young patients, treat complex fractures in elderly, either due to previous symptomatic osteoarthritis or situations where internal fixation with plates and screws is deemed too hazardous. Similarly, total knee replacement can be performed to correct mild valgus or varus deformity. Serious valgus or varus deformity should be corrected by osteotomy. Physical therapy has been shown to improve function, and may delay or prevent the need for knee replacement. Pain often is noted when performing physical activities requiring a wide range of motion in the knee joint. Outcomes Knee replacement provides significantly better results than exercise training in terms of reducing pain 6 months to 2 years afterwards. People who have had knee replacements have lower death rates than the matched population for 10 years after surgery, but increased rates from 11 years onwards. For this reason it is sometimes argued that the age group 65-75 is the best time to consider having a knee replacement if activity is being severely curtailed by knee pain. Although knee replacement has superior 24 month results in terms of pain relief than exercise treatment, it may not be cost effective compared to the option of initial exercise treatment followed by crossover to knee replacement if results are unsatisfactory. ==Pre-operative preparation==

To indicate knee replacement in case of osteoarthritis, its radiographic classification and severity of symptoms both should be substantial. Such radiography should consist of weightbearing X-rays of both knees: AP, lateral, and 30 degrees of flexion. AP and lateral views may not show joint space narrowing, but the 30-degree flexion view is most sensitive for narrowing. Full-length projections also are used in order to adjust the prosthesis to provide a neutral angle for the distal lower extremity. Two angles used for this purpose are: Hip-knee-shaft angle (HKS), an angle formed between a line through the longitudinal axis of the femoral shaft and its mechanical axis, which is a line from the center of the femoral head to the intercondylar notch of the distal femur. and hip-knee-ankle angle (HKA), which is an angle between the femoral mechanical axis and the center of the ankle joint. The patient is to perform range-of-motion exercises, and hip, knee and ankle strengthening as directed daily. Exercises that include strengthening of hip flexors, hip abductors and knee flexors helps to recover effectively post operatively. Before the surgery is performed, pre-operative tests are done: usually a complete blood count, electrolytes, APTT and PT to measure blood clotting, chest X-rays, ECG, and blood cross-matching for possible transfusion. About a month before the surgery, the patient may be prescribed supplemental iron to boost the hemoglobin in their blood system. Accurate X-rays of the affected knee are needed to measure the size of components which will be needed. Medications such as warfarin and aspirin will be stopped some days before surgery to reduce the amount of bleeding. Patients may be admitted on the day of surgery if the pre-op work-up is done in the pre-anesthetic clinic or may come into hospital one or more days before surgery. As of 2017, there was insufficient quality evidence to support the use of pre-operative physiotherapy in older adults undergoing total knee arthroplasty. However, as of 2022, there has been renewed interest in improving patient outcomes and "prehab" has become standard practice. Preoperative education is used as a part of patient care. There is some evidence that it may slightly reduce anxiety before knee-replacement surgery, with low risk of detrimental effects. Knee replacement referrals are often blocked if a person is overweight because it is believed they may benefit less from surgery. However, knee replacements have been found to reduce pain and improve function, regardless of people's weight. After 10 years, most people did not need repeat surgery. In addition, weight loss surgery before a knee replacement does not appear to change outcomes. ==Technique==

The surgery involves exposure of the front of the knee, with detachment of part of the quadriceps muscle (vastus medialis) from the patella. The patella is displaced to one side of the joint, allowing exposure of the distal end of the femur and the proximal end of the tibia. The ends of these bones then are cut accurately to shape, using cutting guides oriented to the long axis of the bones. The cartilages and the anterior cruciate ligament are removed; the posterior cruciate ligament also may be removed but the tibial and fibular collateral ligaments are preserved. Whether the posterior cruciate ligament is removed or preserved depends on the type of implant used, although there appears to be no clear difference in knee function or range of motion favoring either approach. Kinematic alignment Kinematic alignment is an alternative surgical approach in total knee arthroplasty that aims to restore the patient's pre-arthritic joint anatomy by positioning prosthetic components according to the native kinematic axes of the knee, rather than aligning them to a neutral mechanical axis. This technique resurfaces the knee to reproduce the original joint line orientation, limb alignment, and ligament laxity, restoring the pre-arthritic state of the knee. Historically, patient satisfaction following total knee arthroplasty has been lower than that observed after total hip replacement. Kinematic alignment has been associated with improved functional outcomes and patient satisfaction in comparative studies, with some reports suggesting outcomes approaching those seen in total hip arthroplasty. Femoral replacement A round-ended implant is used for the femur, mimicking the natural shape of the joint. On the tibia the component is flat, although it sometimes has a stem that goes down inside the bone for further stability. A flattened or slightly dished high-density polyethylene surface is then inserted onto the tibial component so the weight is transferred metal to plastic, not metal to metal. During the operation any deformities must be corrected, and the ligaments balanced so the knee has a good range of movement, and is stable and aligned. In some cases the articular surface of the patella also is removed and replaced by a polyethylene button cemented to the posterior surface of the patella. In other cases, the patella is replaced unaltered. Technology In recent years, there has been an increase in technology assistance with implantation of total knee replacements. Traditionally, knee replacements were performed using mechanical jigs, not unlike those used in carpentry. These mechanical jigs rely on vision and human judgment. Using computer assistance to provide navigation, navigated knee replacements provide assistance in more accurate placement of implanted knee replacements based on mechanical axis. While these implants are placed more accurately, there has not been much improvement in long-term outcomes. Similarly, sensor-based guidance provides accurate feedback to demonstrate soft-tissue tension to assist in guidance of insertion of knee replacements. Robotic-assisted knee replacements take into account both mechanical axis and soft-tissue balancing in order to assist the surgeon in placement of a knee replacement. Short-term outcomes of robotic-assisted knee replacements are promising. Augmented reality-assisted surgery Augmented reality (AR) navigation has been introduced as an intraoperative guidance technology in total knee arthroplasty (TKA). AR systems project preoperative planning data directly into the surgeon's field of view, enabling real-time guidance on bone cut orientations and component positioning. Approaches vary across platforms: some systems require CT-based preoperative 3D planning combined with smart glasses and a compact tracking system, while others operate without additional preoperative imaging and guide the distal femoral and proximal tibial cutting guides intraoperatively. Some systems additionally provide real-time soft tissue assessment, enabling the surgeon to tailor implant positioning to each patient's individual anatomy. Early clinical studies have reported high accuracy in replicating planned bone resections and significant improvements in patient-reported outcomes at short-term follow-up. Post-operative pain control The regional analgesia techniques (neuraxial anesthesia or continuous femoral nerve block or adductor canal block) are used most commonly. Local anesthesia infiltration in the pericapsular area using liposomal bupivacaine provides good analgesia in the post-operative period without increasing the risk for instability or nerve injury. Some benefits in femoral nerve blocks are a reduction in morphine consumption and a decrease in pain intensity. A combined approach of local infiltration analgesia and femoral nerve block to achieve multimodal analgesia is common. Modified intervastus approach Introduced in 2018, a modified intervastus approach to the anterior knee may be used for total knee arthroplasty. The procedure is intended to preserve the quadriceps tendon and vastus medialis. The evidence did not show any clear benefit on patient function, treatment success or quality of life. ==Controversies==

Cemented or cementless The femoral, tibial and patellar components of a total knee replacement are fixed to the bone by using either cement or cementless total knee replacement implants. Cemented fixation is performed on the vast majority of total knee replacements. However, short-term trials suggest that there may be relief of pain. There are concerns regarding tibial loosening after implantation, prohibiting widespread adoption of cementless knee replacements at this time. Denervation of the patella There is debate regarding denervating the patella. Anterior knee pain is thought to be related to the association of the patella and femoral component. Some surgeons believe that by using electrocautery to denervate the patella, it reduces the chance of anterior knee pain postoperatively. Patella resurfacing Many surgeons in the US perform patella resurfacing routinely, while many surgeons in Asia and Europe do not. Patella resurfacing is performed by removing the cartilage from the surface of the knee and replacing it with polyethylene. Surgeons who do not routinely resurface the patella do not believe that it is a significant contribution to pain, when there is no evidence of arthritis to the patellofemoral joint. Some surgeons believe it is not cost-effective routinely to resurface the kneecap and that routine patella resurfacing may lead to increased complications such as patella fracture. Other surgeons are concerned that patients with an unresurfaced patella may have increased pain postoperatively. A meta-analysis evaluating outcomes following patella resurfacing found that routine resurfacing more reliably relieves patient's pain. Tibia polyethylene component Polyethylene is the plastic component that is inserted between the femoral and tibial components. There are several different polyethylene component designs that have been published, including posterior stabilized (PS), cruciate retaining (CR), bicruciate retaining (BCR), medial congruent (MC) and mobile bearing. Ligament retaining or sacrificing The posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) is important to the stability of the knee by preventing posterior subluxation of the tibia, reducing shear stress, increasing flexion and lever arm of the extensor mechanism by inducing femoral rollback upon flexion, and thus minimizing polyethylene abrasion through reducing stress applied to the articular surface. The PS implant uses a post that is built into the implant to accommodate for the loss of PCL. Proponents of retaining the PCL advise that it is difficult to balance a CR knee and unnatural physiologic loads may increase wear of the polyethylene. Medial congruent polyethylene and ligament retaining MC knee replacements attempt to mimic a more natural knee motion by decreasing motion on the medial aspect of the knee and allowing for increased motion on the lateral aspect of the joint. This mimics the external rotation and abduction of the tibia that is seen during normal ambulation. While several studies have shown improved gait profiles, long-term studies are needed to demonstrate improved results. Conversely, the BCR knee retains the Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments to try to mimic the normal tension of the knee's ligaments. Concerns over increased revision frequency have led to some designs being pulled from the market. Mobile bearing A mobile bearing design allows for free motion of the polyethylene within the tibial component. Other component designs have the polyethylene member fixed to the tibial component, and only articulate at the femur/polyethylene junction. There is no strong evidence that this approach improves knee function, mortality, adverse events, or amount of pain, compared with a fixed bearing approach for total knee replacement. Minimally invasive Minimally invasive procedures have been developed in total knee replacement that do not cut the quadriceps tendon. There are different definitions of minimally invasive knee surgery, which may include a shorter incision length, retraction of the patella without eversion (rotating out), and specialized instruments. There are few randomized trials, with studies finding less postoperative pain, shorter hospital stays, and shorter recovery times. These studies have not shown long-term benefits. Many studies demonstrate higher revision rates associated with partial knee replacements. There is significant variation in revision rates, depending on implant design and implantation technique. ==Components and zones==

Standardized zones around the components are used for specifying, for example, signs of loosening on radiographic follow-up. There are various classification systems for specifying such zones, including by KS (Knee Society) zones published in 2015. File:Knee prosthesis components.jpg|Main components of a knee prosthesis. File:Knee prosthesis zones by Knee Society 2015, AP view.jpg|KS zones, anteroposterior (AP) view. Specific KS zones are as follows, with * meaning that the zone can be specified as "A" (anterior), "P" (posterior), "M" (medial) or "L" (lateral): • Femoral component (lateral view) :*Zone 1 and 2: Anterior and posterior flange, respectively. :*Zone 3: Central box/distal fixation region, where "A" and "P" designate the respective chamfers if visible* :*Zone 4: Stem extension* :*Zone 5: Stem • Tibial component: :*Zone 1: Anterior on lateral view, medial on anteroposterior (AP) view. :*Zone 2: Posterior on lateral view, lateral on AP view. :*Zone 3: Central keel/stem/peg fixation region* :*Zone 4: Stem extension* :*Zone 5: Inferior aspect of keel or stem ==Risks==

Risks and complications in knee replacement are similar to those associated with all joint replacements. The most serious complication is infection of the joint, which occurs in 30mm/hr) and serum C-reactive protein (CRP>10 mg/L) concentration, 2.Elevated synovial leukocyte count, 3.Elevated synovial neutrophil percentage (PMN%), 4.Presence of purulence in the affected joint, 5.Isolation of a microorganism in one culture of periprosthetic tissue or fluid, or 6. Greater than five neutrophils per high-power field in five high-power fields observed from histologic analysis of periprosthetic tissue at ×400 magnification. None of the above laboratory tests has 100% sensitivity or specificity for diagnosing infection. Specificity improves when the tests are performed in patients in whom clinical suspicion exists. ESR and CRP remain good 1st line tests for screening (high sensitivity, low specificity). Aspiration of the joint remains the test with the highest specificity for confirming infection. The choice of treatment depends on the type of prosthetic infection. • Positive intraoperative cultures: Antibiotic therapy alone • Early post-operative infections: debridement, antibiotics, and retention of prosthesis. • Acute hematogenous infections: debridement, antibiotic therapy, retention of prosthesis. • Late chronic: delayed exchange arthroplasty. Surgical débridement and parenteral antibiotics alone in this group has limited success, and standard of care involves exchange arthroplasty. ==Post-operative evaluation==

Knee replacement is routinely evaluated by X-ray, including the following measures: File:X-ray of HKA angle with knee prosthesis.jpg|HKA: Hip-knee-ankle angle, which is ideally between 3° varum to 3° valgum from a right angle. File:Postoperative X-ray of normal knee prosthesis, anteroposterior view, annotated.jpg|- FFC: frontal femoral component angle. It is typically regarded as optimal when being 2–7° in valgus.- FTC: frontal tibial component angle, which is regarded as optimal when being at a right angle. A varus position of more than 3° has generally been found to increase the failure rate of the prosthesis.- LTC: lateral (or sagittal) tibial component angle, which is ideally positioned so that the tibia is 0–7° flexed compared to at a right angle with the tibial plate. ==Post-operative rehabilitation and follow-up==

The length of post-operative hospitalization is five days on average depending on the health status of the patient and the amount of support available outside the hospital setting. Protected weight bearing on crutches or a walker is required until specified by the surgeon because of weakness in the quadriceps muscle. To increase the likelihood of a good outcome after surgery, multiple weeks of physical therapy are needed to help the patient return to normal activities, as well as prevent blood clots, improve circulation, increase range of motion, and eventually strengthen the surrounding muscles through specific exercises. Range of motion (to the limits of the prosthesis) is recovered over the first two weeks. Over time, patients are able to increase the amount of weight bearing on the operated leg, and eventually are able to tolerate full weight bearing with the guidance of the physical therapist. In most medical-surgical hospital units that perform knee replacements, ambulation is a key aspect of nursing care that is promoted to patients. Early ambulation can decrease the risk of complications associated with immobilization such as pressure ulcers, deep vein thrombosis (DVT), impaired pulmonary function, and loss of functional mobility. Promotion and execution of early ambulation on patients reduce the complications, as well as decrease length of stay and costs associated with further hospitalization. Continuous passive motion (CPM) is a postoperative therapy approach that uses a machine to move the knee continuously through a specific range of motion, with the goal of preventing joint stiffness and improving recovery. There is no evidence that CPM therapy leads to a clinically significant improvement in range of motion, pain, knee function, or quality of life. This treatment should be incorporated with traditional physical therapy in the postoperative acute setting. Three months after the procedure, it is still increased by 11%. Cryotherapy involves the application of ice bags or cooled water to the skin of the knee joint. Stretching helps to improve range of motion as well during initial rehabilitation. Post surgery the range of motion is limited due to the immobilization, which leads to increased muscle stiffness. Hence, stretching helps to extend the shortened muscle and gradually improving the range of motion. Some physicians and patients may consider having ultrasonography for deep venous thrombosis after knee replacement. Neither gabapentin nor pregabalin have been found to be useful for pain following a knee replacement. A Cochrane review concluded that early multidisciplinary rehabilitation programs may produce better results. Follow-up assessments are conducted to examine the need for revision surgery. This is because there is an increased risk of prosthesis failure over time due to factors such as the material used, infection, and dislocation. However, a UK study showed that only 5% of knee replacements needed a revision. Researchers recommended that routine follow-up may not be needed for up to 10 years. At this point, x-rays should be used to assess the joint, and there should be a clinical assessment of pain and mobility. After the surgery, 88% of individuals regain their preoperative level of physical activity and sports. Even ten years later, 70% of them continue to engage in sports. ==Frequency==

With 718,000 hospitalizations, knee arthroplasty accounted for 4.6% of all United States operating room procedures in 2011—making it one of the most common procedures performed during hospital stays. The number of knee arthroplasty procedures performed in U.S. hospitals increased 93% between 2001 and 2011. A study of United States community hospitals showed that in 2012, among hospitalizations that involved an OR procedure, knee arthroplasty was the OR procedure performed most frequently during hospital stays paid by Medicare (10.8 percent of stays) and by private insurance (9.1 percent). Knee arthroplasty was not among the top five most frequently performed OR procedures for stays paid by Medicaid or for uninsured stays. By 2030, the demand for primary total knee arthroplasty is projected to increase to 3.48 million surgeries performed annually in the U.S. == Fall risk after total knee arthroplasty ==

With osteoarthritis (OA) being the most common reason for total knee arthoplasty (TKA) surgery, it is important to understand that balance deficits significantly impact the quality of daily living in patients with knee OA and are also linked to greater risk of falling and poor mobility. Annually in the US, 40% of all patients with OA report a history of falls. TKA surgery has shown to decrease fall risk and fear of falling in pre-operative fallers with OA versus non-operative fallers by 54% following TKA. == See also ==