Lozi kingdom

Some traditions attribute the origins of the name Lozi to the founders of the ruling dynasty, suggesting that it later spread to their subjects. Other traditions say that the present-day Lozi were originally called Aluyana, and that the Makololo termed them in the 19th century, which was subsequently adopted. Historian Mutumba Mainga considers the latter explanation more likely, given that the language of the king's court was Siluyana. In this article, Luyana is used to refer to the modern-day Lozi before Kololo conquest and rule in the mid-19th century; Lozi is used after that point and in reference to the present. == Geography ==

near Mongu|alt=Aerial view of the expansive flat mossy-green plain, with the Zambezi snaking through. Two mounds are visible with settlements on top. |alt=Map of settlements, most are on the Zambezi which runs north to south. Lozi territory (also called "Barotseland") encompasses southwestern Zambia, a region characterized by Kalahari sands and shrubland. The Zambezi River runs north to south, surrounded by the Bulozi Floodplain (), which has an abundance of alluvial deposits. The northern Zambezi Valley is referred to as "Bulozi proper". The river floods annually between January and May, and the Plain is bordered on both sides by higher forested ground. Various tributaries of the Zambezi run across the Plain, forming small valleys. The Plain is made fertile by seepage areas () below the steep surrounding embankment that channel water down the Plain and irrigate strips of land. ==History==

Origins Lozi oral tradition holds that the Lozi were the first inhabitants of the Bulozi Floodplain, having always lived there since descending from Nyambe (God) and Mbuyu (a female ancestor) Traditions of neighbouring groups, such as the Kazembe-Lunda, Ndembu-Lunda, and Nkoya, trace the roots of the Luyana/Lozi to the Mwata Yamvo dynasty of the Lunda Empire. Historians Mutumba Mainga, Bizeck Phiri, and Lawrence Flint support this, noting that many Zambian groups trace their origin to the Congo Basin. or to have adopted Siluyana as their court language. and cattle to Imatongo in modern-day Senanga District, Expansion Over the course of the next few generations, royal prestige and power strengthened, and a royal cult developed. Institutions were borrowed from other groups and created by certain . During the reign of Yeta I (the third ), all came under his control, and new ones could only be created by the monarch. Lozi tradition credits Ngalama (the fourth ) with expanding the state and conquering the polities of Mwanambinyi and Mange. Tradition represents Mwanambinyi as hiding in mist or creating floods or droughts which hamper Ngalama's forces, until attrition by war causes him and his followers to "disappear into the ground" at Imatongo. The conquest of Mange happens after a series of defeats and Mange's dispute with his mother Nolea over a woman, which leads Nolea to surrender Mange's protective charms to Ngalama. Mange's followers were called ("those who failed Mange"), now the . Mutumba Mainga considered these narratives to refer to real historical events. This saw the Luyana overcome rival centres of secular and ritual power to gain control of the entire Plain. Following the conquests of Mwanambinyi and Mange, challenges arose in the administration of the newly-acquired land. The distance of Mwanambinyi's lands in the south from the capital made the prior system of appointing commoners as ( ) to administer territories ineffective, and groups such as the Subiya gained autonomy. To address this, Ngombala (the sixth ) established another centre of power in the south at Libumbu or Libumbwandinde. Tradition says that Notulu, Ngombala's daughter, was the first southern ruler, and details dynastic conflict between Notulu and her brother Mbanga; Mainga said that this may conceal revolts by the southern groups. Mbanga is said to have come to rule after Notulu's abdication. This southern 'kingdom' (called and centred on Nalolo) remained subordinate to the 's rule (called ). Having consolidated his control over the Plain, and with his capital at Nakaywe, Mulambwa (the tenth , r. ) challenged Mwananyanda and succeeded him to the title, also seeing off ruler Kusio. After Sebitwane died in 1851, Kololo rule rapidly declined. The Northern Ndebele of Mthwakazi in modern-day Zimbabwe regularly launched campaigns against the Makololo in the early 1850s, often venturing deep into the Plain. The Makololo's centre of power in the south, and their focus on fortifying the Zambezi to protect against the Ndebele, left their rule over the Zambezi Valley in the north relatively weak. The extreme south also experienced high levels of malaria, which decimated the Makololo, who had little natural resistance to it. Sebitwane had placed strong emphasis on personally maintaining good relations with his various subjects (including living with Lozi royal Sipopa), and the Kololo state relied upon a strong and popular king who fostered loyal subjects. Sebitwane was succeeded by his daughter Mamochisane, who quickly abdicated in favour of her half-brother Sekeletu. The young Sekeletu struggled to live up to his father and alienated his subjects, also catching leprosy which sent him into seclusion. Several of the remaining Lozi royals fled to the exiled groups, including Sipopa, who left for Lukwakwa. In the Valley, Kololo prince Mpepe led a revolt against Sekeletu, seeking to independently rule the Valley and overthrow him. In 1853, Sekeletu had Mpepe executed, though his rule over the Valley remained weak. Suspicious of witchcraft and plots, Sekeletu ordered many executions, and several groups gained their independence. The Lozi groups at Nyengo and Lukwakwa had both repelled Kololo invasions despite their hostility to each other, though their distance from the Royal Graves belied the establishment of a new . In 1860, Sipopa, with the support of factions at Lukwakwa and the Mbunda, killed Imasiku, who had up until then led the Lukwakwa group. In 1863, Sekeletu died, starting a Kololo succession crisis. A civil war broke out between Mpololo and Mamili (the latter of which had the support of some Lozis), with Mpololo victorious. He embarked on violent pacification campaigns and freely executed opposition, fostering widespread fear and resentment. In 1864, Mpololo ordered the execution of all sons of Lozi chiefs, sparking a Lozi rebellion led by nobleman Njekwa, which massacred the Makololo. Lozi tradition says all Kololo men were killed (though it is known some survived or fled), and women were distributed amongst themselves as wives (likely assisting in the adoption of Sikololo). By 1864, the Nyengo group had dispersed and migrated into the Lukwakwa and Valley groups. After the rebellion, Njekwa invited Sipopa back to the Valley to be installed as the new . Mamili subsequently appointed Mwanawina II as . while his sister Matauka was made ruler at Nalolo. Lewanika rebuilt the system of tribute from the forest communities, obligating unpaid labour, and the , c. 1890|alt=Lewanika (looking at the camera) sits on a chair with dozens of others kneeling to his left and right. A handful of drummers and a silimba (xylophone) player sit opposite him and them. In the late 1880s, the Lozi kingdom found itself surrounded by Portuguese, British, and German colonial expansion amid the Scramble. In 1886, when François Coillard established a missionary station in Sefula, Lewanika (on the advice of Khama, who had come under British protection in 1885) while respecting Lozi sovereignty. Many traditionalists were strongly opposed to this, despite Lochner distributing gifts and bribes. Under pressure, Lewanika rejected the Concession and lamented the missionaries as "liars" and "secret agents". Upon learning Lochner had misrepresented himself as brokering for the British Crown instead of a company (meaning protection was indirect), Lewanika was furious and felt further betrayed when British residence and other conditions did not materialise. A hut tax was established by the Company in 1902 and was strictly enforced, gravely affecting commoners; Company policy ignored development and intended for Bulozi to supply cheap labour on 'white-owned' farms and mines in Southern Africa, After the British threatened removal of the Lozi elites' privileges (which were necessary for class differentiation), Yeta and the resolved that they would focus on maintaining the special status of Barotseland within Northern Rhodesia and that of the ruling class. In 1945, Yeta abdicated and was replaced by his half-brother Imwiko. During Imwiko's reign, the Provincial Commissioner enacted reforms of the BNG, reviving a sub-council of the National Council/ (the ) that would be elected by regional councils and advise the , angering . |alt=Mwanawina, wearing a British military uniform, sits on a large drum. There is a crowd and a British flag in the background. Imwiko was succeeded by Mwanawina III (a son of Lewanika) in 1948. Despite the elite being factionalised, they were united in opposition to merging Northern and Southern Rhodesia. Ideas of seceding from such a merger and becoming a separate protectorate began gaining currency, though Mwanawina instead sought the restoration of powers and distanced the kingdom from nationalist resistance. In return for some rights, Mwanawina supported the establishment of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, plummeting his popularity with the public; people began to view the BNG as a corrupt, nepotic, and exclusionary government. In May 1964, during formal discussions in London regarding independence, Mwanawina and Kaunda signed a separate treaty, the Barotseland Agreement 1964, granting the kingdom special status within an independent Zambia. Britain also signed it, but only as a witness, a distinction of which Mwanawina was unaware. In October 1964, Zambia gained independence. The central government commissioned development projects and brought the within Lusaka's jurisdiction, which caused political conflict and was received by the Lozi elite as encroaching on their rights and violating the 1964 Agreement, of which Gerald Caplan wrote that the government had no intention of upholding. From 1965, Lozis began to blame the central government for the lack of material benefits since independence. The refused all cooperation with the central government, prompting the government to introduce the Local Government Bill, replacing the with five district councils. Mwanawina lost all his special rights (such as appointing councillors, the treasury, and vetoing of legislation) except for the allocation of land. The Chiefs Act also allowed the central government to revoke recognition of any chief, which now explicitly included the . The was outraged and discussed methods of resistance, and also appealed to the British for help. Popular opposition to the central government grew in Bulozi, and Lozi high-ranking members in UNIP were gradually sidelined while Bemba influence grew. Mwanawina died in 1968 and was replaced by Godwin Mbikusita, a purported son of Lewanika and hardline seccessionist. In the 1968 elections, the Zambian African National Congress (ZANC) won the most seats in Bulozi with 61% of the vote. In 1969, Kaunda proclaimed that Zambia was at "economic war" with Britain, South Africa, and the United States. He nationalised the copper industry and enacted several reforms, including removing the 's right to assign land. Kaunda personally took control of UNIP, citing internecine divisions. The Barotse Province was renamed as "Western Province" and was given the same status as Zambia's other provinces. Later in 1969, the government passed a bill that officially revoked the 1964 Agreement to fierce opposition, though the position of was still recognised by the central government. Following Namibia's independence from South Africa in 1994, Lozis founded the Caprivi Liberation Army (CLA) (whose leadership descended from who had been appointed by Lewanika). The CLA attacked the government in Caprivi in 1999, though they were quickly defeated. In Zambia Lozi figures played key roles in the re-establishment of multi-party democracy in 1990 through the Movement for Multi-Party Democracy (MMD). Following the 1991 elections, Frederick Chiluba formed the new government. Despite MMD receiving overwhelming support from Lozis in the elections, President Chiluba (himself a Bemba) did little to placate Lozi voters. Tensions grew between the Barotse Royal Establishment (BRE) and the central government, and secession gained popular support amid public demonstrations. In 1995, the government passed the Lands Act which de facto transferred the 's informal right to allocate land (which he had retained despite its formal removal in 1969) to the president. == Government ==

The state was headed by a (king, ). and candidates depended on support from senior . The acted as both the 's spokesperson and as the principal representative of the people. The ("Master/Mother of Life") held a special role where they could veto any decision made by the or if it were deemed harsh or unjust, and their residence served as a sanctuary for anyone set to be executed. The could promote or demote , but not the or . Another centre of power existed in the south (called ), ruled by a member of the royal family, and was subordinate to the north (called ); the southern ruler had representative in the , and the had some in the . The consisted of several factions of : the (seated on the 's right in the ) was composed of Lozi aristocrats, including the and , and it appointed the kingdom's administrative heads; the (seated on the 's left) advanced the 's interests in opposition to the , which represented the public; and the , which consisted of the royal family. in the also comprised several inner or councils, namely the (composed of the most senior members of the factions), (a less senior version of the ), (its purpose in early times is unclear), and (the 's personal hand-picked council which offered him advice). Appointments to governmental positions generally came through the institution, where the (or representatives of him) travelled throughout the kingdom and brought child prodigies back to the capital. The children (boys and girls) lived in royal or senior households and underwent apprenticeships, later gaining responsibilities and duties based on merit. Girls did domestic work in the royal household, and some became ("Mothers of the King"), who comprised a council headed by the Queen Mother (), which engaged in governing. The had the power to veto the 's decisions. In the late-19th century, during Lewanika's reign, women were excluded from government, and the institution was expanded to recruit labourers, causing people to hide their children out of fear. ( ) were groups of men that served as armies or labourers and initially corresponded to territories. They were each headed by an , who lived at the capital and discussed policy with the and his advisors through a representative. likely began as bands of followers and were created and employed by members of the royal dynasty, though over time they all came under the control of the , who also appointed their (sometimes as a reward for service or bravery shown). At one point, all women, men, and children were part of a , which was determined by their father's or guardian's association, meaning they generally comprised patrilineal kin. engaged in work that depended on their territories' resources and could raid or work on public construction for the if needed. It was tradition for each new to create a . The southern ruler had control of subgroups of (), though the ruler's authority over these was superseded by that of the 's. Administration The kingdom was divided into ( ), headed by , who were appointed by the and approved by village heads. The ruler had control over some , though the division between and rule did not perfectly align with territorial units. A had a regional (council) composed of village headmen, which people could spectate, and people were mandated to attend when a law was being made to gauge public opinion. also had a corresponding in the to report matters to when they visited, who in turn reported to the . themselves were composed of several ( ), which were groupings of villages (). A was led by the most senior headman of its villages, who also had their own and resolved disputes between villages. Villages typically accommodated kin, and their headmen had to be accepted by the village's family heads and approved by the . It was the responsibility of the headmen to resolve minor disputes between people and ensure people's needs were met. Anthropologist Max Gluckman wrote in 1941 that these divisions only concerned land use and not governance of people, citing the unstable settlement of the Plain because of seasonal flooding. He considered the to serve as the kingdom's administrative units. Mutumba Mainga disagrees with this and says that settlements on the Plain were permanent, citing lengthy family histories about landholdings and villages. She also says that often corresponded to because they were both dependent on kinship. Ideology of kingship Lozi tradition holds that members of the royal dynasty have divine ancestry due to their descent from Mbuyu and Nyambe, imbuing them with (royalty), which determined eligibility for kingship. A new underwent an elaborate installation ritual (), which involved purification rituals, before being presented to the public. Some rites were carried out at Mbuyu's grave in Makono and Mboo's in Imwambo (afterwards, the new made sacrifices at all royal graves to seek their endorsement). The was bound to ritual seclusion and spoke only through an intermediary. After death, a was believed to become more powerful and remain able to affect people's lives, acting as a mediator between the living and Nyambe. The emphasis on powerful royal ancestral spirits served to protect the living from being blamed for disasters or mistakes.A group of families lived near where a deceased chose to be buried, and one person took on the position of or . The tended to the deceased 's grave, appeased him with sacrifices, and acted as an intermediary between him and the public. Sacrifices were placed on the (an opening in the grave), and the deceased 's spirit was believed to be consulted via the for major policy decisions and the installation of a new monarch. Traditionally, fires were put out after a monarch's death to symbolise the death of the nation, and only relit once the new monarch lights a fire. == Economy ==

The was responsible for public infrastructure, such as building mounds to protect settlements from flooding, or canals for drainage and transport. The redistributed some tribute to areas where certain goods were lacking and needed. The migration of the Mbundu into the Plain in the early-19th century introduced cassava, millet, and yams to the Luyana. Farming at the edges of the Plain by seepage areas was likely popularised among the Luyana/Lozi by the Mbunda, though the Nkoya and had developed the technique for it earlier. According to 19th-century records, iron was largely taken from the beds of streams, rivers, and swamps, and smelting was predominantly specialised in by the Totela. Roles tended to be hereditary, and products included spears, axes, hoes, blades, and hammers. Pottery was largely undertaken by women. The Ndundulu, Makwanga, and Mbunda specialised in woodworking. The Lozi crafted dugout canoes from mukwa trees, reportedly having learnt their techniques from the Totela. Baskets were usually made from grass, baobab fibre, or bark. Mats were made from reeds knotted together with bark; the Makoma made tight mats out of papyrus that were waterproof and could be used for the construction of huts. Huts were typically made of mats and reeds. Usually, men would lay a cement foundation and craft the roof, while women constructed the walls. The communities of the Bulozi Floodplain and those of the forests relied upon each other for certain goods; from the forest communities, those of the Plain imported wood, canoes, bark to make rope, honey, and beeswax, among others. The communities of the Plain exported to those of the forests cattle, milk, and fish. Initially, this trade was conducted via barter, though after Ngombala's conquests, he established a tribute system () wherein the forest communities were obligated to send some of what they produced to the capital. Another institution called involved the communities sending young men and women to the Plain when requested in order to meet labour demand. These systems were overseen by ( ), who reported to the if they were not carried out, which was often met with force. == Society and culture ==

in 2016|alt=The Nalikwanda (a large canoe-looking boat with a model elephant on top and dozens of paddlers) travels down the Zambezi surrounded by canoes. All people in the kingdom were considered (servants) while the was (servant of the nation/people), and each person bore reciprocal social responsibility. National hunts () were held annually and led by the . Infants were believed to embody ancestral spirits and were initially given names that had negative connotations. During the first few years, they were protected by charms and developed without being disciplined "like a wild tree" until they stopped suckling, at which time they were named by an old relative. From the ages of five or six, children worked hard. The Luyana/Lozi did not have clans, though they did have ancestral names called ( ) given to them from their great grandparents, where people having the same meant that they had ancestors who bore that . In the present day, do not constitute groups, nor do people with the same have obligations to each other, though such people regard each other as kin. Lozi traditional dress is the for men (consisting of a shirt and knee-length skirt, sometimes paired with a sleeveless jacket and (red beret)), and the for women (possibly influenced by crinolines worn by wives of 19th-century missionaries). A new year was accompanied by the start of agricultural work. Lozi years were 13 months long. A month's length was determined by the moon's waxing and waning, and they were grouped into seasons. The Luyana had two main ceremonial dances: (a war dance performed by men) and (performed by women), which were not accompanied by singing and were performed at royal events. Another tradition attributes the origin of the Royal Graves to the first , Mboo, whose spirit is said to have chosen to move from his grave in Ikatulamwa (his capital) Witchcraft, divination, and traditional medicine were popularised among the Lozi during their time in exile after the Kololo conquest in the mid-19th century, where they were separated from their sacred sites and came into close contact with the Mbunda and Luvale, who dealt in these practices. Mutumba Mainga says that witchcraft and divination "may be described as a denial, rather than a form, of religion", as they reject sacredness and worship. Monica Wilson wrote that witchcraft was the inversion of accepted behavioural norms, and the "wilful misdirection of the mystical powers" innate to each person. In this 'denomination', misfortune, illness, and death were attributed to witchcraft and sorcery performed by people, and divination sought to identify and cleanse these people and to give insight into the future, serving to give adherents control over their lives. Healers () and witches () were differentiated by their motives and intent. == List of rulers ==

The following regnal list is largely taken from African States and Rulers, 3rd ed. (2006). The locations of the Royal Graves (, ) are largely derived from Adolphe Jalla's Litaba za Sicaba sa Malozi ("History of the Lozi Nation"), first published in 1909 or 1910. ==Notes==