Early Dvaravati period: 7th–9th centuries The area of Dvaravati (what is now Thailand) was first inhabited by
ancient Mon people who had arrived and appeared centuries earlier. The foundations of Buddhism in central Southeast Asia were laid between the 6th and 9th centuries when a
Theravada Buddhist culture linked to the ancient Mon people developed in central and northeastern Thailand. The Mon Buddhist kingdoms that rose in what are now parts of Laos and Central Plain of Thailand were collectively called Dvaravati.
The Mon people of Lavo , a
Chalukya style complex, built around the 9-10th century.|thumb According to the
Northern Thai Chronicles, Lavo was founded by
Kalavarnadisharaja, who came from Takkasila in 648 CE, a year after
Dvaravati made
Tou Yuan its vassal.
Kalavarnadisharaja was a son of
Kakabhadra, king of Takkasila (it is assumed that the city was
Nakhon Chai Si of
Kamalanka) who set the new era,
Chula Sakarat in 638 CE. The era was used by the Siamese and the Burmese until the 19th century. His son, Phraya
Kalavarnadisharaja founded the city a decade later. Evidence from stone inscriptions found in ancient Mon script in Northern and Central Thailand confirms that the main population of Lavo and
Haripuñjaya mandalas is likely to be the same ethnic group, the "
Mon people", or any ethnic group that uses the
Austroasiatic languages. Due to the royal blood relations, these two states maintained a good relationship for the first 300 years. The only native language found during early Lavo times is the
Old Mon language. It is hypothesized that the migration of
Tai peoples into Chao Phraya valley occurred during the time of the Lavo kingdom. Around the late 7th century, Lavo expanded to the north. In the Northern Thai Chronicles, including the
Cāmadevivaṃsa,
Camadevi, the first ruler of the ancient Mon kingdom of
Haripuñjaya, was said to be a daughter of a Lavo king. Few records are found concerning the nature of the Lavo kingdom. Most of what we know about Lavo is from archaeological evidence.
Tang dynasty chronicles records that the Lavo kingdom sent tributes to Tang as Tou-ho-lo (). In his diary, the monk
Xuanzang referred to Dvaravati-Lavo as Tou-lo-po-ti, which seems to echo the name Dvaravati, as a state between Chenla and the
Pagan kingdom. By the
Song dynasty, Lavo was known as
Luówō ().
Chenla influence and warfare Via royal relations,
Isanavarman I (r. 616–637) of the
Chenla kingdom expanded Khmer influence to the
Menam valley during the Mon dominance through his campaigns around the 7th century, but did not exercise political control over the region. During the
Sui period (581–618), two sister kingdoms,
Zhū Jiāng, which has been identified as one of the
Dvaravati-influenced polity, and
Cān Bàn, made
royal intermarriages with Zhenla. They then fought several wars against Dvaravati
Tou Yuan to the northwest. Tou Yuan later became a vassal of
Dvaravati in 647, and known as Lavo in 648. The warfare between Chenla and Dvaravati continued into the
Tang period with the involvement of several kingdoms, including the three brother states of
Qiān Zhī Fú,
Xiū Luó Fēn, and
Gān Bì, who collectively fielded over 50,000 elite soldiers. In addition to Lavo, Zhenla also encountered
Línyì to the northeast. until the disintegration in the late 7th century, Some scholar suggests that the son of
Si Thep king named
Bhavavarman mentioned in the Ban Wang Pai Inscription (K. 978) founded in the
Phetchabun Province of Thailand was probably
Bhavavarman II instead of
Bhavavarman I (r.580–598) due to the inscription styles that potentially inscribed after 627.
Qian–Dvaravati rivalry Records indicate that conflict between the
Dvaravati and
Qian monarchies can be traced to the 6th century.
Siddhijaya Brahmadeva of Manohana—commonly identified with
Ayojjhapura and further equated with
Si Thep, the principal center of
Qiān Zhī Fú This expansion brought him into direct confrontation with the locally entrenched Brahmanical leadership headed by
Kakabhadra, Approximately a century later, however, the balance of power shifted decisively. Dvaravati territories, including Lavo and its associated trading hub of
Sukhothai, are described as having fallen under the Qian during the reign of
Padumasūriyavaṁśa. Following the end of Padumasūriyavaṁśa’s rule, central control weakened, and several subordinate polities seceded, most notably Dvaravati Lavo. Nevertheless, certain polities—such as
Xiū Luó Fēn and
Gān Bì—appear to have retained dynastic affiliations with the Qian.
Late Dvaravati period: 10th–11th centuries Fall of Ayojjhapura During the 8th and 9th centuries, the western
Chao Phraya Valley was likely centered on
Ayojjhapura (identified with
Si Thep), as attested in
Pali chronicle traditions, notably the and the
Jinakalamali. In this period, Lavo is commonly interpreted as functioning as the southern frontier fortress of
Ayojjhapura, reflecting its subordinate yet strategically significant position within the broader political landscape. The decline of
Ayojjhapura may have begun in the mid-10th century, as suggested by a Khmer inscription dated to 946, which records that the
Angkorian king
Rajendravarman II achieved victories over
Rāmaññadesa () and
Champa. Subsequently, in 949, Rājendravarman II appointed a member of his lineage, Vāp Upendra, as governor of Rāmaññadeśa, further indicating Angkorian expansion into the region. In addition, the recounts a conflict between
Ayojjhapura, led by
Adītaraj, and
Yaśodharapura over possession of the
Emerald Buddha, an event conventionally dated to the late 9th or early 10th century. This confrontation, however, likely reflects a longer-standing rivalry between the two polities. As noted by
Woodward,
Jayavarman II—founder of
Kambujadesa and the ruler who relocated the Angkorian capital northward to
Yaśodharapura in the mid-9th century—cultivated alliances with city-states in the
Mun–
Chi river basin, including
Wen Dan, in order to counterbalance the influence of Ayojjhapura in the
Pa Sak River basin to the west. Ayojjhapura appears to have been largely abandoned by the 13th–14th century. Many Thai scholars attribute this decline to a combination of environmental factors, particularly climatic change, as well as epidemic disease.
Lower Chao Phraya Valley's political turmoil During the 10th–11th centuries, Lavo was overrun by neighbors from all directions; several battles with the northern neighbor
Haripuñjaya happened in the early 900s, which caused the kingdom to be annexed by
Tambralinga from the south in 928. Then, it was devastated by the
Angkor from the east in 946 and 1001, raided by the
Chola in 1030, and later invaded by
Pagan from the west in 1058 and 1087, as detailed below. In the early 10th century, several battles between two sister mandalas—Lavo and
Haripuñjaya—from 925 to 927 were recorded. After losing Lavo, both Mon's kings rallied up north to hold
Haripuñjaya city, but King Rathasatkara defeated and lost the hometown to Lavo's king. After failing to retake Haripuñjaya, King Rathasatkara moved south to settle in
Phraek Si Racha (present-day
Sankhaburi district). Following the conquering of Lavo, Javaka also seized
Suphannabhum in the next few years. Princes of
Suphannabhum—Thamikaraj and
Chandrachota—fled to
Haripuñjaya.
Tambralinga's prince King Kampoch, unsuccessfully annexed
Haripuñjaya the following year. It is expected that following the capture of Lavapura, the populace was subjected to exorbitant taxes, perhaps prompting their exodus from the city and Lavapura was then left abandoned. It was retrieved by Sri Lakshmi Pativarman, who was appointed by
Suryavarman I as Lavo governor in 1006. to avoid the second devastation
Chandrachota instead established royal relations with Pagan by having his queen consort's older sister married to the king of Pagan. Two polities then became allies.
Chandrachota's son,
Narai I, became his successor who then moved Lavo capital to
Ayodhya in the 1080s. During Narai's reign, Lavo experienced another invasion by Pagan in 1087 but the conflict ended with the negotiation. Narai died with no heir in 1087. This caused a 2-year Ayodhya civil war among the nobles, in which Phra Chao Luang won.
Arrival of the Tai peoples Modern Thai historians think the
Tai peoples originated in northern Vietnam and
Guangxi province in China. The origin of the Tai peoples were living in northern Southeast Asia by the 8th century. Five linguistic groups emerged: the northern Tai in China (ancestors of
Zhuang); the upland Tai people in northern
Vietnam (ancestors of the
Black,
White and
Red Tai); the Tais in northeastern Laos and bordering Vietnam (ancestors of the Tai of Siang Khwang and the
Siamese in
Ayutthaya); the Tai in northern Laos; and the Tai west of
Luang Prabang,
northern Thailand and in the adjoining parts of Laos,
Yunnan and
Burma. the Daic-speaking people at
Qiān Zhī Fú leisurely assimilated the remaining Dvaravati principalities in the western Menam Valley, and this polity was referred to by the Chinese as
Gē Luó Shě Fēn, which is the corrupted term of
Jiā Luó Shě Fú or
Canasapura centered at
Si Thep. Due to this political pressure, a Tai ruler Sri Thammasokkarat (), who was also from Si Satchanalai, fled to
Nakhon Si Thammarat. Sri Thammasokkarat married to princess of Dhanyapura (Dong Mae Nang Mueang in the present-day
Nakhon Sawan province), and their descendants ruled
Tambralinga until the late 13th century.
The Customs of Cambodia of
Zhou Daguan, as an official delegation sent by the
Yuan dynasty to
Angkor from 1296 to 1297, says the Siamese people exerted significant influence over Lavo's
Lavapura and appeared in huge numbers in the Angkorian capital of
Yaśodharapura.
Prang Sam Yot was built during this period. All of the turmoil, as mentioned earlier, also led to the independence declaration of the
Sukhothai Kingdom in 1238.
Ayodhya era: 1100s–1350s Foundation of Ayodhya , founded in Ayodhya during the reign of Sai Nam Peung (r. 1111–1165) Ayodhya, previously known as Mueang Wat Derm or Mueang Nong Son, was found in 934 by a monk from Mueang Bang Than () in present-day
Kamphaeng Phet. and was later designated as the new capital of Lavo in the 1080s. There are many records of Xiān invasion of
Champa,
Dān mǎ xī (, identified as far as Tumasik, or
Singapore), Xī lǐ (), before the formation of Ayutthaya Kingdom. From about the same period there is also a well-known bas relief panel of
Angkor Wat showing mercenaries of the Khmer army, who are identified as
syam-kuk, perhaps "of the land of Siam." One cannot be certain what ethnolinguistic group these mercenaries belonged to, but many scholars have thought them to be
Siam people. After two centuries of being devastated, the region entered the conflict-free era in the 12th century, artifacts and ruins dating back to the 12th–13th centuries found in the area indicate that there was a migration of people from surrounding regions, such as the
Khmer from the east, the
Mon from the west, and the
Tai–
Mon from the north. Several modern mandalas then emerged, such as
Suphannabhum,
Phrip Phri,
Sukhothai, and
Ayutthaya.
Siamese Lavo Valley in the 13th century, shows the key polities under Siamese
Chen Li Fu (number 1 – 16) as well as its small settlements (grey pogs), as proposed by Walailak Songsiri. After Phra Chao Luang () won the 1087–1088 Ayodhya civil war, he was enthroned as the king. However, since he had no male heir, he had his only daughter marry Sai Nam Peung (), According to
The Customs of Cambodia written by
Zhou Daguan as an official delegation sent by the
Yuan dynasty to
Angkor from 1296 to 1297, the Siamese people exerted significant influence over Lavo's
Lavapura and appeared in huge numbers in the Angkorian city of
Yaśodharapura. then only from Lavo in 1299. In 1349 Xiān people become united with the people of Lo-hu, the new kingdom named Xiānluó (暹羅) by the Chinese. However,
Xiān might refer to the
Suphannaphum Kingdom of
Suphanburi Province.
Formation of Ayutthaya Kingdom In 1350,
Uthong and
Borommarachathirat I of
Suphannabhum (modern
Suphan Buri) co-founded
Ayutthaya Kingdom on an island located on the intersection of three rivers;
Chao Phraya River,
Lopburi River and
Pa Sak River, and Uthong became the king of the city. But Borommarachathirat I took Ayutthaya from Uthong's son
Ramesuan in 1370, and then Ramesuan retreated to Lavo. In 1388, Ramesuan took revenge by taking Ayutthaya back from Borommarachathirat I's son,
Thong Lan. Borommarachathirat I's nephew
Intharachathirat took Ayutthaya back for the Suphannaphum dynasty in 1408. The Uthong dynasty was then purged and became a mere noble family of Ayutthaya until the 16th century. There are many theories about Uthong's origin. According to HRH Prince
Chula Chakrabongse, he was thought to have been a descendant of
Mangrai. ''Van Vliet's chronicles
, a seventeenth-century work, stated that King Uthong was a Chinese merchant who established himself at Phetchaburi before moving to Ayutthaya. Tamnan Mulla Satsana'', a sixteenth-century
Lanna literature, stated that King Uthong was from the Lavo Kingdom. After the foundation of the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 14th century, Lavo was incorporated into a major stronghold of the Ayutthaya Kingdom. Following the merging, according to the
Instructions Given to the Siamese Envoys Sent to Portugal composed in 1684, Lavapuri or
Lopburi was abandoned around the 15th century. It was retrieved and became the kingdom's capital during the reign of King
Narai in the mid-17th century, and the king resided there for about eight months a year. ==List of rulers==