Early period basin (Tao includes the middle reaches of the Çoruh River, as well as its tributaries, the Oltu and Tortum) According to the studies of
Nikolai Marr, the
Chans originally occupied a much wider territory, including the
Çoruh River basin and its right-bank tributaries, from which they were temporarily displaced—first by
Armenians and later by
Georgians. According to
Ivane Javakhishvili, from ancient times Tao and the neighboring region of
İspir were inhabited by Georgian tribes of
Laz or
Chalybes. By contrast,
Igor M. Diakonoff proposed that the earliest population of the region may originally have been
Hurrian-speaking and was later gradually
Kartvelianized (more precisely,
Chanized), after which the area became a zone of intensive Armeno–Chan interaction. The region and its inhabitants—most notably the Chalybes,
Taochi, and
Phasians—are described in the
Anabasis of Xenophon, who passed the area with the Ten Thousand in the
4th century BC. Based on this account, Robert W. Edwards concluded that the Taochi most likely inhabited the valleys of
Oltu,
Narman, and
Tortum. At that time, like the
Carduchii and
Chaldians, they were a free people not subject to
Persian rule, although they later came under the authority of the Iberians. According to
Cyril Toumanoff, by the 4th–3rd centuries BC the region had already become part of the ancient Georgian
Kingdom of Iberia. According to
Geography of Strabo (XI.14.5), in the early
2nd century BC the area was seized by
Artaxiad Armenia from Iberia. Although Strabo refers specifically to the ("the slopes of the
Paryadres"), modern scholarship generally identifies this area with the historical region of Tao. Their integration into Armenia and the gradual incorporation of Tao into the Armenian political sphere occurred through military alliances, dynastic marriages, and the acquisition of hereditary offices granted by the Armenian monarchy. According to
Nina Garsoïan, Tao-Tayk may have been evangelized as early as the time of
Gregory the Illuminator. An Arabic translation of the 5th-century historian
Agathangelos recounts how Gregory sent bishops to
Basiani,
Speri, and
Kola, in later interpretations, this reference to Kola has sometimes been understood as extending to Tao as well. However, Armenian sources only from the late 6th century, following the peace of 591, provide the earliest clear evidence for treating Tao-Tayk and Kola collectively under a single regional name. Georgian ecclesiastical tradition attributes the earliest missionary activity in Tao to
Andrew the Apostle, who is said to have preached in the "lands of
Kartli". According to
The Georgian Chronicles, after performing miracles in Samtskhe and leaving an icon of the Virgin Mary there, Andrew continued his mission into Tao.
Persian rule and ecclesiastical division . Following the
Partition of Armenia in 387, Tao fell within the Persian sphere of influence, while its western frontier functioned as a border zone between the
Byzantine Empire and the
Sasanian Empire. This frontier represented not only a political boundary but also an ideological divide between
Christianity and
Zoroastrianism. Tao-Tayk remained within the boundaries of the Armenian kingdom—later reduced to a Sasanian vassal—and subsequently within the
Marzpanate of Armenia After the extinction of the Armenian royal line in 428, the Mamikonian family—whose principal rivals were the
Bagratuni—pursued an increasingly independent foreign policy, alternately aligning with Byzantium or Persia. In 450, Tao participated in the Armenian uprising against Persian rule, culminating in the
Battle of Avarayr. Leadership of the local resistance was assumed by Amayak Mamikonian, together with Arten Kabelean and Varaz-Shapuh Paluni; the movement was ultimately suppressed by
Vasak Siwni, who led a Persian punitive expedition in the region. According to Robert W. Edwards, during the
Artaxiad and
Arsacid periods, as well as under
Persian suzerainty (c. 387–591), the northwestern boundary of Tao extended to the
Çoruh River, where the population was likely predominantly
Georgian.
Robert H. Hewsen similarly argued that during the Mamikonian period Tao and Kola were largely Georgian districts, while Bolkha and its surrounding districts may have been predominantly
Armenian. Both Edwards and Hewsen criticized nationalist interpretations portraying Tao-Tayk as solely Armenian or Georgian. The acts of the
Second Council of Dvin (555) constitute the last known historical document to mention an Armenian bishop from Tao-Tayk. According to
Nikoloz Aleksidze, by the late 6th or early 7th century Tao had adopted the
Chalcedonian tradition and ceased to fall under the authority of the
Armenian Church of
Persarmenia, suggesting possible
Georgian ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the region during this period. " of the 7th century.
Byzantine influence and Arab invasions As a result of the
Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591,
Emperor Maurice reorganized Armenia, bringing Tao under Byzantine control in 591. According to
Cyril Toumanoff, Tao-Tayk became part of the Byzantine province known as
Deep Armenia (
Armenia Profunda), which consisted of three districts. This view, however, is not universally accepted: Robert Edwards argues that there is no clear evidence that Tao-Tayk itself was ever formally renamed
Deep Armenia. Nina G. Garsoian observes that Armenian sources following the peace of 591 provide the earliest evidence for treating Tao, Kola, and Bolkha as a single, unified region under a common name — Tayk. Moreover, as noted by Hewsen, before the Byzantine reorganization Kola may have existed as a separate principality rather than as an integral part of Tayk. Following the military campaigns of
Emperor Heraclius during the subsequent
Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, the
Kingdom of Iberia lost the coastal territory of
Klarjeti—including the cantons of
Nigali and
Murguli in the lower Çoruh basin—as well as the "land of Tukharis", which was incorporated into Tao. At least part of Tao appears to have been granted as an appanage to a cadet branch of the Mamikonian family in the 6th century. Between the 6th and 7th centuries, the secondary branch of the
Dimaksian dynasty, based in eastern Tao, established the independent principality of Bolkha/Bukha (known in Georgian sources as Bugatakuri). Northeast of Bolkha was the principality of Kola, governed by local native rulers bearing the same name. The Mamikonians, the Dimaksians, and other lesser independent or semi-independent feudal lords in the region maintained their own armed retinues and banners. According to the
Zoranamak (military list), Tao-Tayk was credited with maintaining a military retinue of approximately 1,000 retainers, although the source does not explicitly mention the presence of the Mamikonians in the region. In 607, the
Third Council of Dvin condemned the
Council of Chalcedon and the
Tome of Leo. As a result, a number of Chalcedonian dissidents migrated either to Tao—which lay within the Iberian political sphere—or to the Byzantine Empire. Bishops who refused to submit to the authority of Catholicos Abraham sought refuge in Tao thus escaped the jurisdiction of the Catholicosate of Dvin, as Tao lay outside Persian territory. According to
Gérard Garitte, these clerics may have been more closely dependent on the Georgian Church than on the Armenian Church. Following the
Arab conquests of the South Caucasus, the
emirate of Arminiya was established and administratively divided into four regions. In Arabic sources, Tao was known as
Sirāj Ṭayr and formed part of either Arminiya III or Arminiya II. From the mid-7th century until 772, the Mamikonians ruled Tao under the suzerainty of the
Arab Caliphate. The Arab invasions of the 7th century marked the collapse of the traditionally pro-Byzantine Mamikonians, who ultimately lost most of their lands and political influence. The Armenian Catholicos
Nerses III the Builder spent six years in exile in Tao-Tayk after leaving
Dvin in 654. Under Byzantine rule, two major churches were constructed at
Bana and
Ishkhani; the church at Ishkhani was founded by Nerses III himself. Both churches were destroyed following the Arab invasions. In the early 9th century, they were restored and converted into episcopal centers by Georgian clerics
Saba of Ishkhani and
Kvireke of Bana. During the 8th century, the region was devastated twice: first in 735 during the
campaign of the Arab general Marwan II, and again in 774–775 during an anti-Arab uprising. The failure of this revolt had catastrophic consequences for the Mamikonians, who lost Tao—largely to the Bagratuni and partly to Iberia. In the 770s,
Ashot Msaker subdued
Shirak and
Abotsi and advanced into Tao, where he built the fortress of
Kalmakhi and made it his residence. According to
René Grousset, Ashot played a role in the Armenization of the borderlands by settling colonists from Aliovit and Arsharunik in the ethnically contested province of Tao-Tayk, which remained under strong Iberian and Byzantine influence. During this period, the Armenian
Gnuni family also settled in Tao. File:Oshki1.jpg|Orthodox cathedral of
Oshki (958–964) File:Otkhta_church.jpg|Ruins of the church of
Otkhta Eklesia (Church of the Four), 10th century File:Ishxani1.jpg|Orthodox cathedral of
Ishkhani, 9th century File:Bana_reconstruction_(Kalgin,_1907).jpg|Reconstruction drawing of
Bana Cathedral, c. 881–923 Ashot's legacy was divided among several branches of the Bagratid family. Over time, they were divided into the Tao and Klarjeti branches, with the Tao branch later subdividing further. The Bagratids of Tao-Klarjeti bore not only Georgian titles but also Byzantine dignities, including kouropalates, magistros, and anthypatos–patrikios. In 888,
Adarnase IV, a member of the Tao branch, restored the Georgian kingship. From that point onward, the title "King of the Georgians" became predominant among the Tao-Klarjeti Bagratids, although the title of kouropalates retained particular importance in relations with Byzantium. After the death of
Gurgen II, the senior branch of Upper Tao gradually became extinct, and its possessions were transferred to the Lower Tao branch.
David III of Tao emerged as the most prominent representative of this lineage.
From the 11th to the 12th centuries: Georgian–Byzantine wars and Turkish invasions After the death of
David III of Tao, the Byzantine emperor
Basil II reached a reconciliation with
Bagrat III of Georgia, and the two sides concluded agreements concerning Tao. As a result, the southern part of Tao passed under Byzantine control, while the northern part—Lower Tao—remained in Bagrat's possession. This division contributed to a northward shift of Georgia's political center and elite. Having consolidated these territories, Basil II established the
Theme of Iberia. The exact date of its creation is uncertain and generally placed between 1001 and 1022, when the emperor finally secured Tao following his
Georgian campaigns of 1014–1023. After the unsuccessful campaign of
George I of Georgia, both Upper and Lower Tao came under full Byzantine control. Although Georgian rulers made several attempts to regain Tao (in 1001, 1014, and 1021–1022), there is no evidence that the local Georgian population was initially oppressed under the new military administration. In 1034,
Bagrat IV of Georgia recovered a substantial part of Lower Tao. The rebellious feudal lord
Liparit IV of Kldekari, with Byzantine support, temporarily seized Tao, but he was captured by the royalist duke Sula Kalmakheli and handed over to Bagrat IV. Under Byzantine rule, Tao was defended not only by regular imperial garrisons but also by local inhabitants, who in return received state lands exempt from taxation. This arrangement deteriorated around 1053, when
Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos disbanded the so-called "Iberian army", reportedly numbering about 50,000 men, and imposed taxes in place of military service. These measures contributed to growing dissatisfaction among the local population toward Byzantine authorities. In its final phase, the Theme of Iberia comprised Tao, Basiani, and Kars. In 1064, during a
campaign in Georgia, the Seljuk ruler
Alp Arslan advanced with his forces into the Tao–Panaskerti area. In 1074,
Gregory Pakourianos resigned as commander-in-chief of the imperial forces in the East and transferred several territories—including
Theodosiopolis, Oltu, Kars, Vanand, Karnipori, and part of Tao—to the Georgian king
George II of Georgia. By 1075, these territories had been largely cleared of Turkish detachments.
From the 13th to the 16th centuries: within the Kingdom of Georgia and Samtskhe-Saatabago Some historians associate the formation of the duchy of Tao with the reign of
Bagrat IV of Georgia, identifying Vache Karichisdze as its first
eristavi (duke). This view, however, is not shared by M. Bakhtadze, who argues that at that time a portion of Tao remained under direct royal control. Bakhtadze also does not exclude the existence of the duchy of Tukharisi within Tao, which is attested in sources from the 11th century. At various points, southern (Upper) Tao—despite having a substantial Georgian population—fell under the control of the Saltukids and the Seljuks of Erzurum. Nevertheless, the local Georgian princes who exercised authority in the region declared their loyalty to the Bagrationi dynasty. In 1124, during a campaign against the Seljuks, David IV of Georgia advanced into southern (Upper) Tao and transferred the
Khakhuli triptych from the
Khakhuli to
Gelati Monastery. In 1191, during the reign of
Tamar of Georgia, a local nobleman named Guzan joined the rebellion of
Yury Bogolyubsky. After the defeat of the rebels,
Zakaria Panaskerteli was appointed the first eristavi of Tao. The Duchy of Tao existed from the 1190s until the 1460s. Known eristavis of Tao include Zakaria Panaskerteli (late 12th century), Taka Panaskerteli (late 13th–early 14th centuries), and
Zaza Panaskerteli (15th century). After the Georgian victory over
Suleiman II of Rum at the
Battle of Basiani, the monasteries of Khakhuli, Oshki, and Bana Cathedral were liberated. Following the
Mongol invasions of Georgia and the weakening of the Georgian state, the Ayyubid dynasty, the Sultanate of Rum, and the rulers of Ahlat competed for control over Tao. From the second half of the 13th century, the region formed part of
Samtskhe-Saatabago. A large Turkmen army was defeated near Bana under the command of
Ivane I Jaqeli (also known as Kvarkvare Tsikhisjvareli), and later the
mandaturtukhutsesi Beka I Jaqeli won a decisive victory over the forces of
Azat Musa. The eristavi Taka Panaskerteli distinguished himself by resisting enemy forces near the fortress of Tortomi with a small contingent. From the 14th century, Tao was part of a reunified Georgian kingdom. It appears that the later Taka—whose troops entrenched themselves in Tortomi—was a grandson of this eristavi and took part in resisting
Timur during his seventh campaign against Georgia in 1401. In 1466, the leader of the Aq Qoyunlu,
Uzun Hasan, launched a military campaign against Georgia, proclaiming a
ghazi (holy war). During this campaign, Tao was invaded, and the fortress of Samagar as well as castles in the Tortum Valley were captured. From the second half of the 15th century, following the
Disintegration of the Kingdom of Georgia, Tao remained within Samtskhe-Saatabago.
Later period By the late 1550s, the western territories of Samtskhe-Saatabago, including Tao, were incorporated into the
Ottoman Empire as a result of the Ottoman campaign led by Ahmed Pasha. During this period, under the reign of
Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–1566), the Ottomans introduced a new administrative structure in Tao: Tortum, Mamravan, and Oltisi were organized as
sanjaks, while Khakhuli was designated as a
nahiyah. The Ottoman authorities placed the administration of the Christian population of Tao—including the Kars–Erzurum area—under the jurisdiction of the
Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople. In the 18th century, the Georgian geographer and historian
Vakhushti Bagrationi described Tao in detail in his Geography of Georgia, outlining its boundaries, terrain, and agricultural character. He depicted Tao as a mountainous and well-watered region, rich in vineyards, fruit, and grain, with settlements concentrated in valleys and gorges. In 1878, part of Tao—specifically Oltu—was occupied by the
Russian Empire and incorporated into the
Kars oblast. As a result of these political changes, much of the Georgian population of Tao was resettled into the interior regions of Turkey. Today, the Tao dialect of Georgian survives only in a limited number of villages in the Parkhali Valley. ==See also==