Lindblom was one of the early developers and advocates of the theory of
incrementalism in policy and decision-making. That view (also called
gradualism) takes a "baby-steps," "muddling through," or "
Echternach-theory" approach to decision-making processes. In it, policy change is, under most circumstances,
evolutionary, rather than
revolutionary. He came to that view through his extensive studies of
welfare policies and
trade unions throughout the
industrialized world. Those views are set out in two articles separated by 20 years: "The Science Of 'Muddling Through'" (1959) and “Still Muddling, Not yet through” (1979), both of which were published in
Public Administration Review. Together with his friend, colleague, and fellow Yale Professor
Robert A. Dahl, Lindblom was a champion of the
polyarchy (or
pluralistic) view of political elites and governance in the late 1950s and the early 1960s. According to that view, no single monolithic
elite controls government and society but rather a series of specialized elites competing and bargaining with one another for control. It is this peaceful competition and compromise between elites in politics and the marketplace that drives
free-market democracy and allows it to thrive. However, Lindblom soon began to see the shortcomings of polyarchy with regard to
democratic governance. When certain groups of elites gain crucial advantages, become too successful and begin to
collude with one another instead of compete, polyarchy can easily turn into
corporatism or
oligarchy. Lindblom died on January 30, 2018, at the age of 100. According to Lindblom, it is difficult for politicians to implement change when those changes adversely affect those who control
capital, who also create the conditions that determine the success of society. Unlike other actors, who must proactively advocate for and against policies, the
owners of capital can, by virtue of their importance for society, shape public policy decisions. In
The Market System: What It Is, How It Works, and What to Make of It (2001), Lindblom echoed and expanded upon many of his concerns raised in
Politics And Markets. The most important of them is that the
market system is the best mechanism yet devised for creating and fostering
wealth and innovation, but it is not very efficient at assigning non-economic values and distributing
social or
economic justice. ==Select bibliography==