Lithuanian–Soviet War

Lithuania became part of the Russian Empire after the final partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795. During World War I, Lithuania was occupied by Germany and made part of Ober Ost. On February 16, 1918, the Council of Lithuania declared independence from both Germany and Russia. Three weeks later, the Bolsheviks, encumbered with the Russian Civil War, sued for peace with the Central Powers and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. They renounced Russian claims to Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Ukraine, Lithuania, and Poland. That changed when Germany lost the war and signed the Compiègne Armistice of 11 November 1918. Lithuania soon began organizing basic institutions and established its first government led by Augustinas Voldemaras. On November 13, 1918, the Soviet Russian government renounced the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which had assured Lithuania's independence. The Bolshevik Western Army followed retreating German troops, maintaining a distance of between the two armies. Demoralized Germans often left valuable armaments and other equipment to the Soviets. The Soviets attempted to spread the global proletarian revolution and sought to establish Soviet republics in the region. They saw Baltic states as a barrier or a bridge into Western Europe, where they could join the German and the Hungarian revolutions. By the end of December 1918, Bolshevik forces reached eastern Lithuania. ==Opposing sides==

Lithuanian government Augustinas Voldemaras, the first Prime Minister of Lithuania, did not believe that forming the military was a priority and advocated for Lithuanian neutrality. He trusted that German mercenaries would protect Lithuania until the upcoming Paris Peace Conference could establish peace. Residents organized local self-defense units to defend themselves from the retreating Germans. Sleževičius' government adopted a new policy on land reform, which could be summarized in a slogan "land for those who cultivate it." It meant the land would be taken from large landowners and redistributed first to the volunteers for free and then to small peasants for a fee. Mobilization of officers was announced only on January 25; about 400 people responded. but Germany was also interested in maintaining its influence in the region and weakening Russia. At first, they tried to organize volunteers from the retreating soldiers of the 10th German Army, commanded by General Erich von Falkenhayn. However, the soldiers were tired and demoralized and wanted to return home as soon as possible. Recruitment continued in Germany, especially in Saxony. The volunteers were paid 30 marks per month plus 5 marks per day and had to sign up for three months. The first Saxon volunteers, as they became known, arrived in Kaunas at the beginning of January, but quite a few of them were judged unfit for duty and sent back. By the end of January, German volunteers numbered 4,000. The last Saxon Volunteers left Lithuania in mid-July. Soviet government On 8 December 1918, a revolutionary government was formed from members of the Communist Party of Lithuania, chaired by Vincas Mickevičius-Kapsukas. The Lithuanian and Belarusian Self-Defence, which aligned itself with Poland, took over the posts. The Lithuanian government withdrew to Kaunas, the temporary capital of Lithuania. On January 5, 1919, Vilnius was taken by the Soviets after a five-day fight with Polish paramilitary platoons led by general Władysław Wejtko. Kapsukas and his government arrived in Vilnius from Daugavpils on January 7. On February 27, the Lithuanian SSR was incorporated into the Socialist Soviet Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia or Litbel. In the occupied territory, the Soviets created revolutionary committees and soviets based on structures developed in Russia. They nationalized commercial institutions and large estates. The land was to be used for collective farming instead of being redistributed to small farmers. Soviets were supported by the industrial working class, but it was too small in Lithuania. Such policies alienated the local population and contributed to the eventual defeat of the Soviets. For example, in February, Kapsukas sent a telegram to Moscow arguing that conscription of local Lithuanians to the Red Army would only encourage Lithuanians to volunteer for the Lithuanian army. ==Soviet advance==

Soviet military gains Soviet troops (about 18,000 to 20,000 men) approached the Lithuanian territory on December 12, 1918. Three divisions were employed: Pskov Rifle Division (later renamed as the Lithuanian Division), International Division (later renamed as the 2nd Latvian Rifle Division; included 39th, 41st, 47th, and 60th Regiments), and 17th Division (later renamed as Western Division; included 5th Vilnius Rifle Regiment). Later, more units were sent from Russia. The Soviets also recruited partisan groups behind the front lines. Lithuania could not offer serious resistance as at the time its army consisted only of about 3,000 untrained volunteers. (Jan. 5), Ukmergė and Panevėžys (Jan. 9), Šiauliai (Jan. 15), and Telšiai (Jan. 25). Also, Germans slowed down the withdrawal of their troops after the Spartacist uprising was subdued on January 12. Southern Lithuania was a little better protected as Germans retreated from Ukraine through Gardinas. To prevent fights between retreating Germans and the Red Army, the Soviets and Germans signed a treaty on January 18. The treaty drew a temporary demarcation line that went through Daugai, Stakliškės, and east of the Kaišiadorys–Jonava–Kėdainiai railway. That barred Bolshevik forces from directly attacking Kaunas, Lithuania's second-largest city. The Red Army would need to encircle Kaunas and attack through Alytus or Kėdainiai. The operation to take Kaunas began on February 7. Encirclement of Kaunas Kėdainiai was attacked by the 2nd Rifle Regiment of the Lithuanian (former Pskov) Division (about 1,000 men). Lithuanian forces from Panevėžys, commanded by Jonas Variakojis, and from Kėdainiai numbered only about 200 men. On February 10, joint Lithuanian and German forces captured Šėta and forced the Red Army to retreat. The operation's success lifted the Lithuanian army's morale and prevented the Red Army from encircling Kaunas from the north. The battle of Jieznas lasted three days, and, after the setback of the betrayal by a Russian officer in Lithuanian service, Lithuanians, together with German support, ultimately won on February 13 and liberated Jieznas. The Soviets continued to push for Kaunas. The 3rd and 4th Rifle Regiments (about 2,000 men) attacked Alytus on February 12. Germans did not engage in battle and retreated; not yet fully formed Lithuanian 1st Infantry Regiment could not withstand pressure from the Red Army and had to retreat towards Marijampolė and Prienai. Antanas Juozapavičius, the first Lithuanian officer to die in the wars, was killed during this battle. On the night of February 14–15, German forces and one company of the Lithuanians returned to Alytus and once more liberated the city. Kaunas was defended and the front stabilized for a while. Soviets were ordered to abandon the offensive and maintain a defensive position. This break allowed Lithuanians to better organize and train the volunteers. == Counteroffensive ==

German offensive Northern Lithuania (Samogitia) was overtaken by the Soviet International Division (about 3,000 men). Its objective was to reach the Baltic Sea and cut off German supplies to Latvians in their war against the Soviets. Local communists were more active in northern Lithuania as the shortest route for Russian prisoners to return to Russia was through Samogitia. Their biggest achievement was forming a 1,000-man Samogitian Regiment, commanded by Feliksas Baltušis-Žemaitis, in the city of Šiauliai. The regiment included Russian POWs, German deserters, and criminals. There were no units of regular Lithuanian army in Samogitia except for partisans in Skuodas, rallied by Povilas Plechavičius and his brother Aleksandras, and in Joniškėlis. It was part of a larger counter-offensive in Latvia. At the end of February, the Lithuanian partisans, supported by German artillery, liberated Mažeikiai and Seda, and pursued the Bolsheviks to Kuršėnai. On February 27, 1919, German volunteers, supported by Plechavičius' partisans and Joniškėlis' partisans, defeated the Samogitian Regiment in a battle near Luokė. On a few occasions, they were aided by Lithuanian partisans and regular units. Joniškėlis' partisans continued to guard the front along the Mūša River. They were later incorporated into the regular Lithuanian military. Lithuanian preparations As the Soviet forces were stopped, the Lithuanian army slowly began preparing itself for an offensive. After the Battle of Kėdainiai, the Panevėžys volunteer regiment had secured its positions and grew in strength. Between mid-February and end of March, it carried out small expeditions into nearby towns. Their main purpose was to demoralize the enemy forces and boost the confidence of locals and Lithuanian volunteers. As a reward for its successful operations, the volunteer regiment was named the Separate Panevėžys Battalion () on March 22. The demoralization campaign was successful; the Bolshevik forces stationed in Panevėžys and Kupiškis rebelled and were quelled only by a Red Army division from neighbouring Latvia. The Bolshevik morale underwent deeper declines and, between March 19 and March 24, their forces left Panevėžys. Lithuanian forces entered the city on March 26, but the Red Army retook it on April 4. The lull between Soviet attacks was used to strengthen and organize the army. On March 5, Lithuanians announced the mobilization of men born in 1887–1889. However, only about half of them were properly trained, armed, and assigned to military units. The northern group, formed on the basis on the 2nd Infantry Regiment and led by Juozas Butkus, was to attack from Kaišiadorys along the Žasliai–Vievis line. The Polish army forced the Soviets to withdraw their left wing from the territories south of the Neris River. This Polish advance significantly shortened the Lithuanian–Soviet front line and allowed Lithuania to concentrate its forces for operations in northeastern Lithuania. However, it also meant that a new front line with Poland was open. At first, both Poles and Lithuanians cooperated against the Soviets, but soon the cooperation gave way to increasing hostility. The first clashes between Polish and Lithuanian soldiers occurred on April 26 and May 8 near Vievis. Poland did not recognize Lithuania, as its Chief of State Józef Piłsudski wanted a union with Lithuania in hopes of reviving the old Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (see Międzymorze federation). Poland justified its actions not only as part of a military campaign against the Soviets but also as the right of self-determination of local Poles, who formed a significant minority in eastern Lithuania. Lithuanians claimed Vilnius as their historical capital and opposed to any federation with Poland, desiring an independent national Lithuanian state. On May 7, Lithuanians entered Širvintos, where they found Polish troops. Lithuanians and Poles mounted a joint operation to take Giedraičiai on May 9. The Lithuanian army's chain of command was reformed. On May 7, General Žukauskas assumed command of the entire Lithuanian army and initiated a complete reorganization of the Lithuanian forces into two groups. The first brigade, stationed in Ukmergė, was called the Vilkmergė Group and included a battalion of Saxon Volunteers. Its first commander Kazys Ladiga was ordered to push along the Utena–Zarasai line. On May 22, the Group launched an attack on Utena. The initiative was met by a Soviet counterattack and the Lithuanian forces retreated. Further attacks were stopped for several days to wait for the results of the advance on Kupiškis. The drive towards Utena resumed on May 31, and the city was secured on June 2. The Panevėžys Group launched a drive towards Panevėžys on May 18 and secured the city the following day, but lost it to a Bolshevik counterattack, carried out on May 21. The Group charged towards Kupiškis and secured Subačius. On May 30, Joniškėlis' partisans broke through the Soviet lines and liberated Rokiškis in Soviet rear; Bolshevik forces, afraid that they could be encircled, left Kupiškis on the night of May 30–31, and Lithuania secured that city on June 1. After Utena's liberation, Saxon Volunteers left the front, and by mid-July, they had departed Lithuania. On June 12, the Soviets counterattacked and Lithuanians were stopped. Another Soviet push came on June 20 and the front stabilized. The Soviets were cornered in a small region around Zarasai. Between July 6 and 12, Lithuanians, with some Latvian assistance, attempted to drive out the Bolsheviks. The Soviets gathered their forces from calmer fronts and forced Lithuanians to retreat to their former positions. Trying to prevent a direct military conflict, the Allied Supreme Council drew the first demarcation line on June 18, 1919. As German volunteers were departing from Lithuania (their last units left Kaunas in mid-July), Poland mounted an offensive on wide front, moving deeper into the Lithuanian territory. Preoccupied with the Soviet threat, Lithuania could not organize an effective defence and the Entente intervened again by drawing the second demarcation line, known as the Foch Line, on July 26, 1919. Two major modifications were made: Suwałki Region was assigned to Poland and the entire line was moved about west. Neither Lithuanians, Poles, nor Germans (still present in the Suwałki Region) were content with the new demarcation line. Between July 29 and August 2, Polish troops attacked Lithuanians several times. On August 3, a Polish diplomatic mission in Kaunas declared that Poland has no plans to annex Lithuania and proposed a plebiscite in the contested territories, allowing local inhabitants to determine their future. When the Lithuanian government rejected the Polish proposal, Józef Piłsudski decided that further military action was not a solution. Instead, the Lithuanian government itself needed to be replaced by a party more willing to negotiate a compromise. The front stabilized, but bilateral relations worsened in the aftermath of the Sejny Uprising (August 23 – September 9) which, in turn, ruined the attempted coup d'état by the Polish Military Organisation against the Lithuanian government (August 28–29). Final battles , 1919 Due to the threat from Poland, the front with the Soviets was quiet for more than a month. There were minor incidents involving scouts or outpost guards. The Red Army used the time to reorganize and strengthen their forces, using natural barriers, like plentiful lakes, rivers, and hills, enhanced with trenches and barbed wires, to secure their position. They also had field fortifications from World War I about south of Daugavpils. The Ukmergė Group attacked first and liberated Zarasai on August 25. The Group moved about into the Soviet-controlled territory, but neither the right nor left flanks were adequately protected by the Polish units or the Panevėžys Group. The Panevėžys Group began advancing on August 26 and Polish troops moved along the railroad towards Turmantas. The Lithuanians manoeuvred around the old Russian fortifications, forcing the Red Army to retreat. On August 28, the Soviets began retreating north across the Daugava River. By August 31, on the southern shore of the Daugava, the Soviet held only Grīva, a suburb of Daugavpils. The Bolshevik enemy was driven out from the Lithuanian territory and the narrow front stabilized as Lithuanians and Soviets were separated by the Daugava River. The Lithuanian main forces could be redeployed elsewhere, including protection of the demarcation line with Poland and the planned attacks against the Bermontians in northern Lithuania. The Lithuanians claimed the territory, taken by their soldiers, for themselves, despite Latvian protests. This led to several skirmishes between Latvian and Lithuanian troops, but the border issue was successfully mediated by Britain and finally resolved in March 1921. ==Peace treaty==

The first Lithuanian–Soviet attempt at negotiations took place on 11 September 1919, after the People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs of Soviet Russia, Georgy Chicherin, sent a note with a proposal for a peace treaty. The talks began only in May 1920 and were highly influenced by the events in the Polish–Soviet War. The Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty was concluded on July 12. Russia recognized Lithuania's independence and its right to the Vilnius Region; in exchange, Lithuania granted Soviet forces unrestricted movement during the war against Poland. On 14 July 1920, the Soviets occupied Vilnius but did not transfer the city to the Lithuanian administration as agreed in the peace treaty. Instead, the Soviets planned a coup to overthrow the Lithuanian government and establish a Soviet republic. On August 26, the Red Army left Vilnius and Lithuanians prepared to defend their borders. As Poland did not recognize the treaty, this led to further hostilities. Eventually, Lithuania lost the Vilnius Region to Poland during the Żeligowski's Mutiny. When mediation by the League of Nations failed to change the situation, Lithuania and Poland were suspended in the state of "no war, no peace" until the Polish ultimatum of 1938. During all this time, Soviet Russia became Lithuania's strongest ally against Poland. ==See also==