, Beginning in the 12th century, Livonia became a target for economic and political expansion by
Danes and
Germans, particularly for the
Hanseatic League and the
Cistercian Order. Around 1160, Hanseatic traders from
Lübeck established a trading post on the site of the future city of
Riga, which Bishop
Albrecht von Buxthoeven founded in 1201. however, no known information regarding the knights' possible activities in Finland has survived. (
Sweden eventually took over Finland after the
Second Swedish Crusade in 1249.) In the Battle of Saule in 1236 the
Lithuanians and
Semigallians decimated the Order. This disaster led the surviving Brothers to become incorporated into the Order of
Teutonic Knights in the following year, and from that point on they became known as the
Livonian Order. They continued, however, to function in all respects (
rule, clothing and policy) as an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order, headed by their own Master (himself
de jure subject to the Teutonic Order's
Grand Master).
Internal conflicts in Livonia (1229–1236) (left) and a
Livonian Sword Brother. The January 1229 death of Albert of Riga caused a
diocesan feud in the
Archbishopric of Riga, as two rival candidates were elected.
Pope Gregory IX, through cardinal
Otto of Tonengo, tasked
Baldwin of Alna as papal legate to resolve the dispute. After securing the submission of Courland, Baldwin soon found himself in conflict with various factions in Livonia, fleeing to
Dünamünde and temporarily leaving Livonia in early 1232. The pope made him bishop of
Semigallia and gave him papal legation throughout much of Livonia, and Baldwin returned by 1233. He tried to take the castle of Reval (modern
Tallinn) from the Sword Brothers, but in August–September 1233 they defeated Baldwin, who
excommunicated many Sword Brothers in retaliation. At that point, Livonia was divided into two camps: Baldwin's Bishopric of Semigallia, the Bishopric of Dorpat and the late Albert of Riga's Buxhöveden family plus several monasteries, most Estonians and Curonians, versus the Livonian Sword Brothers, Nicholas' Bishopric of Riga, and the city of Riga. Previous generations of historians have argued that Baldwin attempted to make the whole Baltic region an ecclesiastical state, but (1993) refuted this idea as "fanciful speculation". Similarly, the traditional assertion that Baldwin had extensive plans to conquer and convert eastwards into parts of Pskov and Novgorod do not stand up under scrutiny, showing that papal correspondence with Baldwin was primarily concerned with ending the internal conflict in Livonia on terms favourable to Rome. Therefore, no Livonian faction was allowed to form an alliance with an external power, be they pagan or Novgorodian, to prevent the internal conflict from spilling over and threaten Livonia's external security. In 1234, the pope recalled Baldwin, and replaced him with
William of Modena. The pope did not give a verdict until April 1236, when the Sword Brothers were tasked to return Reval to the Danish king. The terms of the agreement were not finalised until the
Treaty of Stensby (7 June 1238), when the Livonian Sword Brothers, crushed at
Saule and now submitted to the
Teutonic Order, relinquished their claims to Reval and much of northern Estonia to Denmark, and to share future territorial gains with two-thirds for the Danish king and one third for the Livonian Order.
Livonian Order, the Bishoprics and Riga from 1237 until 1418 ca. 1260. The Livonian Order was a largely autonomous branch of the
Teutonic Knights (or Teutonic Order) and a member of the
Livonian Confederation from 1418 to 1561. After being defeated by
Lithuanian forces in the 1236
Battle of Saule, the remnants of the
Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights as the Livonian Order in 1237. Between 1237 and 1290, the Livonian Order conquered all of
Courland, Livonia, and
Semigallia, but their attack on northern Russia was repelled in the
Battle of Rakvere (1268). In 1346, after the
St. George's Night Uprising the Order purchased the rest of
Estonia from King
Valdemar IV of Denmark. The
Chronicle of Henry of Livonia and the
Livonian Rhymed Chronicle describe conditions within the Order's territory. The Teutonic Order fell into decline following its defeat in the
Battle of Grunwald in 1410 and the secularization of its Prussian territories by
Albert of Brandenburg in 1525, but the Livonian Order managed to maintain an independent existence.
Livonian Confederation (1418–1561) In 1418, the
Archbishop of Riga,
Johannes Ambundii, organised the five ecclesiastical states of the Holy Roman Empire in Medieval Livonia (Livonian Order, Courland, Ösel–Wiek, Dorpat and Riga) into the
Livonian Confederation. A diet or
Landtag was formed in 1419. The city of
Walk was chosen as the site of the diet. From the 14th to the 16th centuries,
Middle Low German – as spoken in the towns of the
Hanseatic League — functioned as the established language of the Livonian lands, but
High German subsequently succeeded it as the official language in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries.
Livonian War (1558–1583) .
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor once again asked for help of
Gustav I of Sweden, and the
Kingdom of Poland also began direct
negotiations with Gustav, but nothing resulted because on 29 September 1560, Gustav I Vasa died. The chances for success of
Magnus, (who had become Bishop of Courland and of Ösel-Wiek) in 1560 and his supporters looked particularly good in 1560 (and in 1570). In 1560 he had been
recognised as their
sovereign by the
Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and by the
Bishopric of Courland, and as their prospective ruler by the authorities of the
Bishopric of Dorpat; the
Bishopric of Reval with the
Harrien-
Wierland gentry were on his side; the
Livonian Order conditionally recognised his right of
ownership of the (future)
Duchy of Estonia. Then along with
Archbishop Wilhelm von Brandenburg of the
Archbishopric of Riga and his
Coadjutor Christoph von Mecklenburg,
Kettler, the last Master of the Teutonic Order, gave to Magnus the portions of the
Kingdom of Livonia which he had taken possession of, but they refused to give him any more land. Once
Eric XIV of Sweden became king in September 1560 he took quick actions to get involved in the war. He negotiated a continued
peace with
Muscovy and spoke to the
burghers of
Reval city. He offered them goods to submit to him as well as threatening them. By 6 June 1561, they submitted to him contrary to the
persuasions of Kettler to the burghers. King Eric's brother and future King
Johan married the Polish-Lithuanian princess
Catherine Jagiellon in 1562. Wanting to obtain his own land in Livonia, he loaned Poland money and then claimed the castles that they had pawned as his own instead of using them to pressure Poland. After Johan returned to
Finland, Erik XIV forbade him to deal with any foreign countries without his consent. Shortly after that, Erik XIV quickly lost any allies that he was about to obtain, either in the form of Magnus or of the Archbishop of
Riga. Magnus was upset that he had been tricked out of his
inheritance of
Holstein. After Sweden
occupied Reval,
Frederick II of Denmark made a treaty with Erik XIV of Sweden in August 1561. Magnus and his brother Frederick II were in great disagreement, and Frederick II negotiated a treaty with Ivan IV on 7 August 1562 to help his brother obtain more land and to stall further Swedish advances. Erik XIV did not like this, and the
Northern Seven Years' War (1563–1570) broke out, with Sweden pitted against the
Free City of Lübeck, Denmark, and Poland-Lithuania. While only losing land and trade, Frederick II and Magnus were not faring well. But in 1568 Erik XIV became
insane and his brother Johan took his place as King
John III of Sweden. Johan III, due to his friendship with Poland-Lithuania, began a policy against Muscovy. He would try to obtain more land in Livonia and to dominate Denmark. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King
Sigismund II Augustus of
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, know that he was ready for peace. On 15 December 1570, the
Treaty of Stettin concluded the Northern Seven Years' War. It is, however, more difficult to estimate the scope and magnitude of the support Magnus received in Livonian cities. Compared to the Harrien-Wierland gentry, the Reval city council, and hence probably the majority of citizens, demonstrated a much more reserved attitude towards Denmark and towards King Magnus of Livonia. Nevertheless, there is no reason to speak about any strong pro-Swedish sentiments among the residents of Reval. The citizens who had fled to the Bishopric of Dorpat or had been deported to Muscovy hailed Magnus as their saviour until 1571. Analysis indicates that during the
Livonian War a pro-independence wing emerged among the Livonian gentry and townspeople, forming the so-called "Peace Party". Dismissing hostilities, these forces perceived an agreement with Muscovy as a chance to escape the atrocities of war and to avoid the division of Livonia. Thus Magnus, who represented Denmark and later struck a deal with
Ivan IV, proved a suitable figurehead for this faction. The Peace Party, however, had its own armed forces – scattered bands of household troops (
Hofleute) under diverse command, which only united in action in 1565 (
Battle of Pärnu and
Siege of Reval), in 1570–1571 (
Siege of Reval; 30 weeks), and in 1574–1576 (first on Sweden's side, then came the sale of
Ösel–Wiek to the
Danish Crown, and the loss of territory to
Tsardom of Russia). In 1575, after Muscovy attacked Danish claims in Livonia, Frederick II dropped out of the competition, as did the Holy Roman Emperor. After this Johan III held off on his pursuit for more land due to Muscovy obtaining lands that Sweden controlled. He used the next two years of truce to get in a better position. In 1578, he resumed the fight, not only for Livonia, but also for everywhere due to an understanding that he made with the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1578, Magnus retired to the Commonwealth and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia. During the many years of the
Livonian War (1558–1582), the Livonian Order suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of troops of
Muscovite Russia in the
Battle of Ergeme in 1560 and continued living under great threat. Letters to the
Holy Roman Emperor arrived from many European countries, warning
that Moscow has its eyes on much more than only a few harbors or the province of Liefland ... the East Sea (Ostsee-
Baltic Sea) and the West Sea (Atlantic) are equally in danger.
Barnim the Elder,
Duke of Pomerania for almost 50 years, warned
that never before did he experience the fear than now, where people sent by Moscow are everywhere even in his land. At stake was the
Narva-trade-route and practically all trade in the North, and with that all of Europe. Due to the religious upheavals of the
Reformation the distant
Holy Roman Empire could not send troops, which it could not afford anyway. The
Duchy of Prussia was not able to help for much of the same reason, and
Duke Albrecht () was under continuous ban by the Empire. The Hanseatic League was greatly weakened by this and the
city state of Lübeck fought its last great war. The emperor
Maximilian II () diffused the greatest threat by remaining on friendly terms with Tsar
Ivan IV of Russia (), but not sending Ivan IV troops as requested in his struggles with the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1570, Tsar Ivan IV of Russia installed
Duke Magnus as
King of Livonia. The other forces opposed this appointment. The Livonian Order saw no other way than to seek protection from
Sigismund II Augustus (
King of Poland and
Grand Duke of Lithuania), who had intervened in a war between Bishop
William of Riga and the Brothers in 1557. After coming to an
agreement with Sigismund II Augustus and his representatives (especially
Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł), the last Livonian Master,
Gotthard Kettler, secularized the Order and converted to
Lutheranism. In the southern part of the Brothers' lands, he set up the
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia for his family. Most of the remaining lands were seized by the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Denmark and
Sweden re-occupied northern Estonia.
Duchy of Livonia (1561–1621) In 1561, during the
Livonian War, Livonia fell to the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania and became a dependent vassal of Lithuania. Having rejected peace proposals from its enemies,
Ivan the Terrible found himself in a difficult position by 1579, when
Crimean Khanate devastated Muscovian territories and burnt down Moscow (see
Russo-Crimean Wars), the drought and
epidemics have fatally affected the economy,
Oprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government, while The
Grand Principality of Lithuania had united with The
Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569) and acquired an energetic leader,
Stefan Batory, supported by
Ottoman Empire (1576). Stefan Batory replied with a series of three
offensives against Muscovy, trying to cut The
Kingdom of Livonia from Muscovian territories. During his first offensive in 1579, with 22,000 men, he retook
Polotsk; during the second, in 1580, with 29,000-strong army, he took
Velikie Luki, and in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army he started the
Siege of Pskov.
Frederick II of Denmark and Norway had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy unlike
Sweden and Poland. He came to an agreement with
John III in 1580, giving him the titles in Livonia. That war would last from 1577 to 1582. Muscovy recognized Polish–Lithuanian control of
Ducatus Ultradunensis only in 1582. After
Magnus von Lyffland died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in The
Duchy of Courland, and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of
inheritance. Except for the island of
Œsel,
Denmark was out of the
Baltic by 1585. As of 1598
Inflanty Voivodeship was divided onto: •
Wenden Voivodeship (
województwo wendeńskie,
Kieś) •
Dorpat Voivodeship (
województwo dorpackie,
Dorpat) •
Parnawa Voivodeship (
województwo parnawskie,
Parnawa) Based on a guarantee by Sigismund II Augustus from the 1560s, the German language retained its official status.
Livonian Voivodeship (1620s–1772) , 1620s–1772. The Livonian Voivodeship (; ) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the
Duchy of Livonia, part of the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, since it was formed in the 1620s out of the
Wenden Voivodeship until the
First Partition of Poland in 1772.
Riga Governorate (1721–1796) The
Russian Empire conquered Swedish Livonia during the course of the
Great Northern War and acquired the province in the
Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710, confirmed by the
Treaty of Nystad in 1721. Peter the Great confirmed German as the exclusive official language. and Count
Pyotr Andreyevich Shuvalov. Livonia remained within the Russian Empire until the end of
World War I, when it was split between the newly independent states of Latvia and Estonia. The
United Baltic Duchy, alternately known as the "Grand Duchy of Livonia", proclaimed by the Baltic German nobility on 12 April 1918, was never recognised by any state, and dissolved at the German surrender in November 1918. Livonia had ceased to exist. From 1918 to 1920, both Soviet troops and German
Freikorps fought against Latvian and Estonian troops for control over former Livonia, but their attempts were defeated. == Legacy ==