The period between 1550 and 1650 was a Golden Age of the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (created in 1569) and a Golden Age of Poland. It was a time of economic prosperity due to
grain trade. Grain was kept in richly embellished granaries (e.g. in
Kazimierz Dolny) and transported along the
Vistula to the main port of Poland -
Gdańsk, where it was sold to the
Netherlands,
England,
France,
Italy, and
Spain (about 80% of the city's revenues in the beginning of the 17th century came from grain trade). It was also the time of
religious tolerance due to the
Warsaw Confederation (1573). Poland was a multinational (
Poles,
Ruthenians,
Jews,
Germans,
Italians,
Dutch,
Flemish,
Armenians,
Scots,
Bohemians, and
Tatars) and multi-religious country (
Roman Catholics,
Eastern Orthodox,
Greek Catholics,
Calvinists,
Lutherans,
Muslims,
Polish Brethren,
Hussites and many others). All those nations and worships contributed to creation of the exceptional diversity of mannerist architecture and sculpture in Poland. The first half of the 17th century is marked by strong activity of the
Jesuits and
Counter-Reformation, which led to banishing of progressive Arians (Polish Brethren) in 1658 and which has its reflection in architecture (spread of baroque). Despite that Poland remain a "country without
stakes". All the major wars and military conflicts were conducted far from the territory of today's Poland, so the country could develop equally. Those favorable conditions are the reason why mannerist architecture and sculpture in Poland left so many beautiful examples. The mannerist architecture and sculpture have two major traditions: Polish-Italian and Netherlandish (Dutch-Flemish), that dominated in northern Poland. The
Silesian mannerism of South-Western Poland was largely influenced by Bohemian and German mannerism, while the Pomeranian mannerism of North-Western Poland was influenced by
Gothic tradition and Northern German mannerism. The Jews in Poland adapted patterns of Italian and Polish mannerism to their own tradition. The major inspiration for many structures in Poland was early renaissance constructions at
Wawel Hill –
Sigismund's Chapel (1519–1533), tomb of king
Sigismund I inside the chapel (1529–1531), and
Wawel Castle's arcade courtyard (1506–1534), as well as buildings in
Antwerp -
City Hall (1561–1565), houses at
Grote Markt and funeral sculptures by the Flemish artist
Cornelis Floris de Vriendt. In conclusion the main criterion of differentiation between types of mannerism in Poland is the source of inspiration and in many cases the founders conception played an essential role for the final shape of the construction (e.g., Tomb of Jędrzej Noskowski in
Maków Mazowiecki by
Willem van den Blocke is an example of Polish mannerism inspired by Tomb of Sigismund I with a founder depicted sleeping). Triangle
gables of late Gothic origin and large windows are the features of Dutch urban architecture in Northern Poland. The Polish mannerism, though largely dominated by Italian architects and sculptors, has its unique characteristics that differentiate it from its Italian equivalent (
attics, decorational motives, construction and shape of buildings, Dutch, Bohemian and German influences). whereas the Kielce palace was imitated by many magnate families in their residencies (e.g., Tarło Palace in
Podzamcze, 1645–1650, and Radziwiłł Palace in
Biała Podlaska). This type of the palace is known as
Poggio–Reale because it combined a square building with a central loggia with side towers, as in
Villa Poggio Reale near
Naples (1487–1489) according to conception of
Baldassare Peruzzi and
Sebastiano Serlio. Side towers become an obligatory element of every palace and funeral church chapels, modelled after mentioned Sigismund's Chapel, flourished all over Poland (Staszów, Włocławek). Another characteristics of the mannerism in Poland are city and palace
fortifications built in
Dutch style (Zamość, Ujazd) and town halls with high towers (Biecz, Zamość, Poznań). The most popular decoration techniques were
relief (Kazimierz Dolny),
sgraffito (Krasiczyn), and
rustication (Książ Wielki), whereas the material was mainly
brick,
plastered brick,
sandstone, and sometimes
limestone. For some time the late renaissance coexisted with early baroque (introduced in Poland in 1597 with Church of SS. Peter and Paul in Kraków). Netherlandish (Dutch-Flemish) and Polish-Italian architectural traditions were not isolated and penetrate each other to create (among others) a unique composition of
Krzyżtopór Palace. This, one of the largest constructions of mannerism and early baroque in Poland, was intended as a fortified palace (type known in Poland under Italian name
palazzo in fortezza). The mannerist architecture in the city was a combination of many types of mannerist traditions, including
Lublin type (
Jesuit Church), Greater Poland mannerism (Kanonia), Italian mannerism with elements of early baroque (
Royal Castle), Lesser Poland mannerism (Kryski Chapel),
Poggio–Reale type (
Villa Regia Palace – not existing), Bohemian and Netherlandish Mannerism (
Ossoliński Palace – not existing, possible inspiration to palace's upper parts pavilion with characteristic roof was Bonifaz Wohlmut's reconstruction of Belvedere in
Prague, 1557–1563). The Bohemian mannerism had also large influence on the architecture and sculpture in Poland. This concerned not only the lands that were part of the
Kingdom of Bohemia, like
Silesia. Bohemian mannerism in Silesia joined the Prague renaissance with its
brunelleschian arcades (inspired by Queen
Anna Jagiellon's Belvedere in Prague, 1535–1537) and German influences originating from the late gothic (steep gable with renaissance decoration). Also Silesian mannerism had its impact on neighbouring regions – the arcade courtyard of the Piast Castle in Brzeg, with arcades replaced in upper parts with columns (constructed by Francesco de Pario, 1556–1558), was possible inspiration for similar constructions in Bohemia –
Opočno Castle (1560–1567),
Jindřichův Hradec Castle (loggia, before 1597), and Schloss
Güstrow in Germany (built by Pario after 1558). Characteristic for
Jewish mannerism in Poland is adjustment of the Polish/Italian patterns to the Jewish tradition, rejection of human images in benefit to the sophisticated floral-animal decorations (
tendrils, lions),
mythological creatures (
unicorns,
griffins) and
Hebrew inscriptions. They were generally made of sandstone, while the founder's figure was carved in red
marble (e.g. Tarnowski Tomb in
Tarnów Cathedral). In the beginning of the 17th century, Dutch and Flemish architects and sculptors (especially Willem van den Blocke and his son Abraham) popularised in Poland new type of tomb monument originating from the Cornelis Floris workshop (e.g. not existing Tomb of duke
Albert of Prussia in the
Königsberg Cathedral). The founders were depicted kneeling, the construction was more spacious and it employ darker materials – brown marbles from
Chęciny, black marbles from
Dębnik or imported from the
Spanish Netherlands (e.g. Tomb of
Báthory brothers in
Barczewo). Some of the most impressive Dutch style tombs in Poland were constructed far from the center of Netherlandish Mannerism in Poland - Gdańsk. These were tombs of Jan Tarnowski in
Łowicz (1603–1604) and of Ostrogski family in Tarnów (1612–1620). Many of the mannerist structures in Poland are postwar reconstructions. They were destroyed by the Germans during the
World War II (e.g., all mannerist constructions in
Warsaw and many Jewish
pray houses) or damaged in
Allied aerial bombings (Gdańsk, Wrocław). Also, many were not restored after the war (e.g., tomb monument of Wolski Brothers in Warsaw, by Jan Michałowicz, destroyed in 1944; or Tarnów Synagogue, destroyed in 1939). ==List of notable mannerist structures in Poland==