Mariano Eduardo de Rivero y Ustáriz

Rivero was born in Arequipa, Peru, to Antonio Salvador de Rivero y Araníbar, a captain in the Spanish Royal Army in the Viceroyalty of Peru, and María Brígida de Ustáriz y Zúñiga. Raised in a liberal Creole family during the colonial period, Rivero received his early education at the Seminary of San Jerónimo in Arequipa. Noting his talents, his family sent him to Europe, and at the age of twelve, in 1810, he began his education in England. He attended a Catholic school directed by Dr. Dowling in London, focusing on mathematics, physics, and languages (English, French, and German). After completing secondary school and advanced classes in 1817, he moved to France, where he studied at the École Polytechnique and then at the École des Mines (Mines ParisTech), both in Paris. At the École des Mines, Rivero learned from leading scientists, including Joseph Louis Proust, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, Alexandre Brongniart, Pierre Berthier, and René Just Haüy. A major event in his life was his encounter with Alexander von Humboldt, who provided him with letters of recommendation that facilitated access to several European academic circles. Rivero completed mineralogical training at the Freiberg School of Mines, Humboldt's alma mater, where he conducted his first fieldwork. During his European travels, he also visited mines in France and Spain to deepen his knowledge of mining techniques. ==Scientific career==

Early discoveries Rivero discovered a new mineral originating in Bohemia (now the Czech Republic), which he named Humboldtine (an iron-oxalate) in honor of his mentor and friend, Alexander von Humboldt. He published his first scientific works on the subject, among others, in France in 1821. Gran Colombia scientific mission Rivero's return to the Americas occurred under Humboldt's influence. In 1822, Francisco Antonio Zea delivered a letter from Simón Bolívar to Humboldt, requesting a scientific mission to investigate the natural resources of the newly formed Gran Colombia and to establish a museum of natural history and a mining school. Humboldt, regarding Rivero as a distinguished disciple, named him head of the mission. Following strong recommendations from Humboldt, Zea contracted Rivero in May 1822 to establish and direct a mining school in Bogotá, alongside a group of young European scientists. Bolívar’s main objective in promoting this project was to strengthen the new nation's economy by advancing natural sciences and mining technology. To prepare for the mission, Rivero acquired laboratory equipment and commissioned the construction of precision instruments. Rivero returned to South America in November 1822, arriving at La Guaira, Venezuela, with the French chemist Jean Baptiste Boussingault. In Venezuela, they studied the thermal springs of Mariara and Onoto, the exploitation of mineral salts at Urao Lake, and the secretion of the cow tree, a species that produces drinkable milk. Rivero also conducted barometric observations during this period. In May 1823, Rivero and Boussingault reached Bogotá, where they met General Bolívar. In November 1823, Rivero inaugurated a museum of natural history and a mining school in Bogotá, serving as its first director. He and his team conducted expeditions into the eastern plains of Colombia. His report, Itinerario de los Llanos de San Martín y del río Meta, based on these expeditions, was later published in his Colección de memorias científicas... in 1857. After three years in Colombia, during which he maintained constant correspondence with his European colleagues, Rivero left the country due to a lack of economic and political support. Bolívar subsequently recommended him to the Peruvian government for similar projects. Return to Peru Simón Bolívar, who served as president of Gran Colombia (1819–1830) and president of Peru (1824–1827), facilitated Rivero's return to his home country. Rivero left Bogotá and arrived in Lima at the end of 1825. The Peruvian government appointed him in March 1826 as general director of mining, agriculture, public instruction, and museums. From 1826 onward, Rivero founded a scientific journal, established Peru's first national museum, created the School of Mines, and served as prefect in mining regions. In 1828, he founded the first Mining School of Lima (today Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería) and the first National Museum of Natural History, Antiquities and History of Peru (today the Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Antropología e Historia del Perú). He also published extensively on Peru's mineral resources during this period. Rivero continued conducting scientific studies, traveling throughout Peru, and, with Nicolás Fernández de Piérola, founded a journal of natural sciences, Memorial de Ciencias Naturales y de Industria Nacional y Extranjera, published between 1827 and 1829. In it, he authored numerous articles and papers on topics such as the amalgamation of silver, the exploitation of guano, the analysis of mineral water from the thermal springs of Yura and other locations in Arequipa, reports on mining regions, and descriptions of gold, silver, and ceramic idols. In 1829, General Antonio Gutiérrez de la Fuente revolted against the government and became president of Peru. Amid an economic crisis, he eliminated the position of director of mining. These circumstances, combined with political instability, prompted Rivero to leave Peru and immigrate to Chile, where he continued his studies in meteorology, mineralogy, and geology. ==Political career==

Rivero returned to Peru in 1832, resumed his previous position, continued his scientific activities, and additionally began a political career. In 1832, he was elected as a deputy to the congress for the province of Caylloma (department of Arequipa). General Felipe Santiago Salaverry, president of Peru (1835–1836), appointed him in 1835 as his counselor. Under the presidency of General Agustín Gamarra (1838–1841), Rivero was appointed inspector of public works. In 1839, he served as chief customs officer of Arica (then part of Peru; now in Chile). During the presidency of Marshal Ramón Castilla (1844–1851 and 1855–1862), Rivero was appointed governor of the Junín Region in 1845 and governor of the department of Moquegua in 1848. As governor of Junín, he founded the city of San Ramón and established a central mining school in Huánuco. ==Diplomatic and later career==

The president of Peru, Marshal Ramón Castilla, appointed Rivero in 1851 as General Consul in Belgium. He was awarded the Order of Leopold by the king of Belgium and the Order of the Dannebrog by the king of Denmark in recognition of his diplomatic service. In 1851, Rivero co-published Antigüedades peruanas with Johann Jakob von Tschudi in Vienna. The work offered a comprehensive study of the Inca Empire, covering its history, origins, government system, scientific knowledge, language, religion, customs, and monuments. In 1857, he published Colección de memorias científicas, agrícolas e industriales publicadas en distintas épocas, etc. in Brussels. This two-volume work compiled many of his previously published articles on natural science, geology, mineralogy, mining, and agriculture. ==Personal life and death==

Rivero married Agueda Escolástica Pacheco de Salas y Salazar on 18 February 1840. They had four children, but only their daughters, Candelaria and Francisca Guillermina, survived childhood. Mariano Eduardo de Rivero y Ustáriz died in Paris on 6 November 1857. ==Published works==

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