Precursor prehistoric maritime networks lingling-o pendants from the
Austronesian Sa Huỳnh culture of southern
Vietnam (). These were traded in ancient maritime trade routes from 2000 BCE to 1000 BCE, largely between the
Philippines, southern
Vietnam,
Borneo, and
Taiwan, across the
South China Sea The Maritime Silk Road developed from the earlier
Neolithic lingling-o jade maritime trade networks established by
Austronesians in
Southeast Asia. This extensive ancient maritime trade network in Southeast Asia, covering a 3000-kilometer area around the
South China Sea, existed long before the Maritime Silk Road. including
betel nut chewing,
coconuts,
sandalwood, domesticated
bananas,
sugarcane,
cloves, and
nutmeg. It also introduced Austronesian sailing technologies like
outrigger boats which are still utilized in Sri Lanka and southern India.
Maritime Silk Road By around the 2nd century BCE, the prehistoric Austronesian jade and spice trade networks in Southeast Asia fully connected with the
maritime trade routes of
South Asia, the
Middle East, eastern
Africa, and the
Mediterranean, becoming what is now known as the Maritime Silk Road. Prior to the 10th century, the eastern part of the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian Austronesian traders using distinctive
sewn-plank and
lashed-lug ships, although
Persian and
Tamil traders also sailed the western parts of the routes. as well as through the
Java Sea,
Celebes Sea,
Banda Sea, and the
Sulu Sea, reconnecting with the main route through the northern Philippines and Taiwan. The secondary routes also continue onward to the
East China Sea and the
Yellow Sea for a limited extent. The close links of these religions to trade with South Asia led to the widespread adoption of
Sanskrit as the trade
lingua franca in the early Maritime Silk Road by the 4th century CE. Austronesians were already sailing as far as
East Africa and the
Arabian Peninsula even during the earlier period. It remained a part of the Maritime Silk Road, along with the nearby African, Arab, and Persian trading ports of
Kilwa Kisiwani and
Zanzibar (
Tanzania), and other ports along the mainland coasts of modern
Somalia,
Kenya, and
Mozambique. Records from Portuguese explorers in the late 15th and early 16th centuries indicate that direct maritime links between Indonesia and Madagascar persisted up until shortly before the colonial period. s from the 8th century, they were depictions of large
Javanese outrigger vessels. Shown with the characteristic
tanja sail of Southeast Asian
Austronesians By the 7th century CE,
Arab dhow traders also ventured into the routes earlier pioneered by Persian traders to
Sri Lanka, coinciding with the
spread of Islam throughout
West Asia. They pushed deeper east into
Srivijaya and
Guangzhou, leading to the earliest spread of
Islam into Southeast Asian polities. During this period, the
Persian language (
Fārsī), became the dominant lingua franca of both the Maritime and overland
Silk Road. The
Butuan boat burials of the
Philippines, which feature eleven
lashed-lug boat remains of the
Austronesian boatbuilding traditions (individually dated from 689 CE to 988 CE), were found in association with large amounts of trade goods from
China,
Cambodia,
Thailand (
Haripunjaya and
Satingpra),
Vietnam, and as far as
Persia, indicating they traded as far as the
Middle East. and its relative position to other participants of the Maritime Silk Road China was invaded by the
Mongol Yuan dynasty in the 13th century. Chinese shipping during this period was monopolized by the state, via foreign Muslim merchants partnered with the Yuan government in
ortogh relationships. Though unlike the Song, the Yuan lifted the 9-month limit, allowing Chinese trade to venture as far as South Asia. The Yuan also attempted naval invasions on
Japan,
Majapahit, and
Vietnam (Austronesian
Champa, and
Kinh Đại Việt). All of which failed. During the same period in the early 15th century, the Ming dynasty launched
the expeditions of
Zheng He, with the goal of forcing the "barbarian kings" of Southeast Asia to resume sending "tribute" (i.e. regular trade routes) to the Ming court. This was typical of the
Sinocentric views at the time of viewing "
trade as tribute". Zheng He's expeditions were short-lived, as the drain in imperial funds and the threat of invasion from the north led the
Xuande Emperor to cease the expeditions. He enacted the
hai jin laws shortly after, and banned outgoing trade altogether. Although ultimately, Zheng He's expeditions were successful in their goal of restoring trade relations with Southeast Asia (in this case,
Malacca) and the Ming dynasty. Trade from Malacca continued to arrive in Chinese ports in the brief period prior to the fall of Majapahit, the
Portuguese invasion of
Malacca, and the fall of the Ming dynasty to the
Manchu invasions.
Decline and
Portuguese Empire The Maritime Silk Route was disrupted by the
colonial era in the 16th century, essentially being replaced with European trade routes. Shipbuilding of the formerly dominant Southeast Asian trading ships (
jong, the source of the English term "junk") declined until it ceased entirely by the 17th century. Although Chinese-built
chuán survived until modern times. There was new demand for spices from Southeast Asia and textiles from India and China, but these were now linked with direct trade routes to the European market, instead of passing through regional ports. By the 16th century, the
Age of Exploration had begun. The
Portuguese Empire's capture of
Malacca led to the transfer of the trade centers to the
sultanates of
Aceh and
Johor. The
Spanish Empire in the
Philippines established the
Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade, which acquired trade goods like
Chinaware and silk from Quanzhou and Zhangzhou, and spices (mostly from the
Spice Islands of Moluccas) for the markets in Latin America and Europe. All of which were traded over the
Pacific to
Acapulco in
Mexico and throughout the Spanish Americas; and also later traded via the
Flota de Indias (
Spanish treasure fleet) from
Veracruz in Mexico to
Seville in Spain and onward throughout Europe. The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade route was the first permanent trade route across the Pacific. Similarly, the
West Indies Spanish treasure fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history. Both bypassed the
Indian Ocean Maritime Silk Road entirely. ==Archaeology==