Early reign on a
follis. Legend: IMPerator Caesar MAXENTIVS Pius Felix AVGustus / AETERNITAS AUGusti Nostri, the Dioscuri standing facing each other, their horses between.- M OST Q (
Mint Ostia, officina P). The joint rule of Maxentius and Maximian in Rome was tested further when Galerius marched to Italy in the summer of 307 with an even larger army. While negotiating with the invader, Maxentius could repeat what he did to Severus, by the promise of large sums of money and the authority of Maximian, many soldiers of Galerius defected to him. Galerius was forced to withdraw, plundering Italy on his way. Some time during the invasion, Severus was put to death by Maxentius, probably at
Tres Tabernae near Rome (the exact circumstances of his death are not certain). After the failed campaign of Galerius, Maxentius' reign over Italy and Africa was firmly established. Beginning in 307, he tried to arrange friendly contacts with Constantine and in the summer of that year, Maximian travelled to
Gaul, where Constantine married his daughter
Fausta and was in turn appointed
Augustus by the senior emperor. Constantine tried to avoid breaking with Galerius and did not openly support Maxentius during the invasion. In 308, probably April, Maximian tried to depose his son in an assembly of soldiers in Rome; surprisingly to him, the present troops remained faithful to his son and he had to flee to Constantine. On 20 April, Maxentius proclaimed himself as the new
consul of the year, alongside his son
Romulus. In the
conference of Carnuntum, in the autumn of that same year, Maxentius was once again denied recognition as legitimate emperor, and
Licinius was appointed
Augustus with the task of regaining the lost domains. of
Emperor Alexander struck in
Carthage. Late in 308,
Domitius Alexander was acclaimed as a rival emperor in
Carthage, and the
African provinces seceded from Maxentian rule. This produced a dangerous situation for Maxentius, as Africa was critical to
Rome's food supply. In addition to Africa, the island of Sardinia also defected to the usurper. There is evidence to support that Constantine secretly allied himself with Alexander in opposition to Maxentius. In any event, Maxentius sent a small army to Africa under the command of his
praetorian prefect Rufius Volusianus which defeated and executed
Alexander around 310. Maxentius used the opportunity to seize the wealth of his supporters, and to bring large amounts of grain to Rome. Maxentius' eldest son
Valerius Romulus died in 309, at the age of about fourteen, was
deified and buried in a mausoleum in the
Villa of Maxentius at the
Via Appia. Nearby, Maxentius also constructed the
Circus of Maxentius. After the death of Maximian in 309 or 310, relations with Constantine rapidly deteriorated and Maxentius allied with
Maximinus to counter an alliance between Constantine and Licinius. He allegedly tried to secure the province of
Raetia north of the Alps, thereby dividing the realms of Constantine and Licinius (reported by Zosimus); the plan was not carried out, as Constantine acted first. In 310, Maxentius lost
Istria to Licinius, who could not continue the campaign. By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics and he died soon after 30 April 311. Galerius' death destabilized what remained of the Tetrarchic system. On hearing the news, Maximinus mobilized against Licinius and seized Asia Minor before meeting Licinius on the Bosphorus to arrange terms for peace. He also strengthened his support among the Christians of Italy by allowing them to elect a new
Bishop of Rome,
Eusebius. , a recarved
Antonine statue. Maxentius was far from secure, his early support dissolving into open protest; by 312, he was a man barely tolerated. Without the revenues of the empire, Maxentius was forced to resume taxation in Italy to support his army and his building projects in Rome. The election of a bishop did not aid much, either, as
Diocletian's persecution had split the Italian church into competing factions over the issue of
apostasy (see
Donatism). The Christians of Italy could easily see that Constantine was more sympathetic to their plight than Maxentius. In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". Constantine, to prevent Maxentius from forming a hostile alliance with Licinius, forged his own alliance with the man over the winter of 311–12 by offering to him his sister
Constantia in marriage. Maximinus Daza considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for military support. Two alliances, Maximinus and Maxentius, Constantine and Licinius, lined up against one another. The emperors prepared for war.
War against Constantine Verona Maxentius expected an attack along his eastern flank from Licinius and stationed an army in
Verona. Constantine had smaller forces than his opponent: with his forces withdrawn from Africa, with the praetorian and Imperial Horse Guard, and with the troops he had taken from Severus, Maxentius had an army equal to approximately 100,000 soldiers to use against his opponents in the north. Many of these he used to garrison fortified towns across the region, keeping most stationed with him in Verona. Against this, Constantine could only bring a force of between twenty-five and forty thousand men. The bulk of his troops simply could not be withdrawn from the Rhine frontiers without negative consequences. It was against the recommendations of his advisers and generals, against popular expectation, that Constantine anticipated Maxentius, and struck first. Constantine crossed the Alps with a quarter of his army, a force equivalent to something less than forty thousand men. At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (
Turin, Italy), Constantine encountered a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry, labeled
clibanarii or
cataphracti in the ancient sources. In the ensuing
battle Constantine spread his forces into a line, allowing Maxentius' cavalry to ride into the middle of his forces. As his forces broadly encircled the enemy cavalry, Constantine's own cavalry charged at the sides of the Maxentian cataphracts, beating them with iron-tipped clubs. Many Maxentian cavalrymen were dismounted, while most others were variously incapacitated by the blows. Constantine then commanded his foot soldiers to advance against the surviving Maxentian infantry, cutting them down as they fled. Victory, the panegyrist who speaks of the events declares, came easily. Turin refused to give refuge to the retreating forces of Maxentius. It opened its gates to Constantine instead. Other cities of the north Italian plain, recognizing Constantine's quick and clement victories, sent him embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. He resided there until the middle of the summer of 312 before moving on.
Milvian bridge '' by
Giulio Romano It was expected that Maxentius would try the same strategy as against Severus and Galerius earlier; that is, remaining in the well-defended city of Rome, and sit out a siege which would cost his enemy much more. For somewhat uncertain reasons, he abandoned this plan, however, and offered battle to Constantine near the
Milvian Bridge on 28 October 312. Ancient sources usually attribute this action to superstition or (if pro-Constantinian) divine providence. Maxentius of course had consulted soothsayers before battle, as was customary practice, and it can be assumed that they reported favourable
omens, especially as the day of battle would be his
dies imperii, the day of his accession to the throne (which was 28 October 306). What else may have motivated him is open to speculation. The armies of Maxentius and Constantine met north of the city, some distance outside the walls, beyond the
Tiber river on the
Via Flaminia. Christian tradition, especially
Lactantius and
Eusebius of Caesarea, claims that Constantine fought under the
labarum in that battle, revealed to him in a dream. Of the battle itself, not much is known – Constantine's forces defeated Maxentius's troops, who retreated to the Tiber, and in the chaos of the fleeing army trying to cross the river, Maxentius fell into the water and drowned. His body was found the next day and paraded through the city, and later sent to Africa, as a sign that he had surely perished. Maxentius' entire family, including his two orphaned children, were also executed. == Overview and legacy ==