Mercury delay lines (1951) After the war, Eckert turned his attention to computer development, which was a topic of some interest at the time. One problem with practical development was the lack of a suitable memory device, and Eckert's work on the radar delays gave him a major advantage over other researchers in this regard. For a computer application the timing was still critical, but for a different reason. Conventional computers have a
clock period needed to complete an operation, which typically start and end with reading or writing memory. Thus the delay lines had to be timed such that the pulses would arrive at the receiver just as the computer was ready to read it. Many pulses would be in-flight through the delay, and the computer would count the pulses by comparing to a master
clock to find the particular bit it was looking for.
Mercury was used because its
acoustic impedance is close to that of the piezoelectric
quartz crystals; this minimized the energy loss and the echoes when the signal was transmitted from crystal to medium and back again. The high
speed of sound in mercury (1450 m/s) meant that the time needed to wait for a pulse to arrive at the receiving end was less than it would have been with a slower medium, such as air (343.2 m/s), but it also meant that the total number of pulses that could be stored in any reasonably sized column of mercury was limited. Other technical drawbacks of mercury included its weight, its cost, and its toxicity. Moreover, to get the acoustic impedances to match as closely as possible, the mercury had to be kept at a constant temperature. The system heated the mercury to a uniform above-room temperature setting of 40 °C (104 °F), which made servicing the tubes hot and uncomfortable work. (
Alan Turing proposed the use of
gin as an ultrasonic delay medium, claiming that it had the necessary acoustic properties.) A considerable amount of engineering was needed to maintain a clean signal inside the tube. Large transducers were used to generate a very tight beam of sound that would not touch the walls of the tube, and care had to be taken to eliminate reflections from the far end of the tubes. The tightness of the beam then required considerable tuning to make sure that both transducers were pointed directly at each other. Since the speed of sound changes with temperature, the tubes were heated in large ovens to keep them at a precise temperature. Other systems instead adjusted the computer clock rate according to the ambient temperature to achieve the same effect.
EDSAC, the second full-scale
stored-program digital computer, began operation with 256 35-
bit words of memory, stored in 16 delay lines holding 560 bits each (words in the delay line were composed from 36 pulses, one pulse was used as a space between consecutive numbers). The memory was later expanded to 512 words by adding a second set of 16 delay lines. In the
UNIVAC I the capacity of an individual delay line was smaller, each column stored 120 bits, requiring seven large memory units with 18 columns each to make up a 1000-word store. Combined with their support circuitry and
amplifiers, the memory subsystem formed its own walk-in
room. The average access time was about 222
microseconds, which was considerably faster than the mechanical systems used on earlier computers.
CSIRAC, completed in November 1949, also used delay-line memory. Some mercury delay-line memory devices produced audible sounds, which were described as akin to a human voice mumbling. This property gave rise to the slang term "mumble-tub" for these devices.
Magnetostrictive delay lines A later version of the delay line used
steel wires as the storage medium. Transducers were built by applying the
magnetostrictive effect; small pieces of a magnetostrictive material, typically
nickel, were attached to either side of the end of the wire, inside an
electromagnet. When bits from the computer entered the magnets, the nickel would contract or expand (based on the polarity) and twist the end of the wire. The resulting
torsional wave would then move down the wire just as the sound wave did down the mercury column. Unlike the compressive wave used in earlier devices,
torsional waves are considerably more resistant to problems caused by mechanical imperfections, so much that the wires could be wound into a loose coil and pinned to a board. Due to their ability to be coiled, the wire-based systems could be as long as needed, so tended to hold considerably more data per unit;
1 kbit units were typical on a board only 1
square foot (). Of course, this also meant that the time needed to find a particular bit was somewhat longer as it travelled through the wire, and access times on the order of 500 microseconds were typical. Delay-line memory was far less expensive and far more reliable per bit than
flip-flops made from
tubes, and yet far faster than a
latching relay. It was used into the late 1960s, notably on commercial machines like the
LEO I,
Highgate Wood Telephone Exchange, various
Ferranti machines, and the
IBM 2848 Display Control. Delay-line memory was also used for video memory in early terminals, where one delay line would typically store 4 lines of characters (4 lines × 40 characters per line × 6 bits per character = 960 bits in one delay line). They were also used very successfully in several models of early desktop
electronic calculator, including the
Friden EC-130 (1964) and EC-132, the
Olivetti Programma 101 desktop
programmable calculator introduced in 1965, and the Litton
Monroe Epic 2000 and 3000
programmable calculators of 1967.
Piezoelectric delay lines from a
PAL color TV; it delays the color signal by 64 μs. Manufacturer: VEB ELFEMA Mittweida (
GDR) in 1980 A similar solution to the magnetostrictive system was to use delay lines made entirely of a
piezoelectric material, typically quartz. Current fed into one end of the crystal would generate a compressive wave that would flow to the other end, where it could be read. In effect, piezoelectric material simply replaced the mercury and transducers of a conventional mercury delay line with a single unit combining both. However, these solutions were fairly rare; growing crystals of the required quality in large sizes was not easy, which limited them to small sizes and thus small amounts of data storage. A better and more widespread use of piezoelectric delay lines was in European television sets. The European
PAL standard for color broadcasts compares the signal from two successive lines of the image in order to avoid color shifting due to small phase shifts. By comparing two lines, one of which is inverted, the shifting is averaged, and the resulting signal more closely matches the original signal, even in the presence of interference. In order to compare the two lines, a piezoelectric delay unit to delay the signal by a time that is equal to the duration of each line, 64 μs, is inserted in one of the two signal paths that are compared. In order to produce the required delay in a crystal of convenient size, the delay unit is shaped to reflect the signal multiple times through the crystal, thereby greatly reducing the required size of the crystal and thus producing a small, rectangular-shaped device. == Electric delay lines ==