reading a pseudo-Mongol script, consisting of an imitation of blocks of
'Phags-pa letters, written horizontally rather than vertically. 1296–1300, Church of San Francesco Assisi. During the period of interaction between the Mongols and the West, from the late 13th century to early 14th century, some Italian painters incorporated Mongol script (particularly the 'Phags-pa script) into their religious painting. Examples can be seen especially in the frescos of the Upper Church of San Francesco at
Assisi, or in the paintings of
Giotto and related painters. with Mongol
'Phags-pa inscriptions, 1324. These inscriptions often imitated the Mongol 'Phags-pa, probably discovered by the artists through Mongol paper money or
paiza (travel passes) such as those
Marco Polo was issued with during his travels. Frescos of
Saint Jerome,
Augustine and
Pope Gregory I in the
Church of San Francesco in
Assisi (1296–1300) are known where they study books written in pseudo-Mongol. The famous Renaissance painter Giotto and his pupils often combined Arabic and 'Phags-pa script in their paintings. In Giotto's
The Crucifixion (1304-1312/1313), soldiers wear tunics inscribed with pseudo-Mongol bands. In Giotto's
Madonna and Child (1320–1330), the
Virgin Mary's robe is decorated with a hem in a mix of Arabic and Mongol script. Another reason might be that artist wished to express a cultural universality for the Christian faith, by blending together various written languages, at a time when the church had strong international ambitions. Possibly, the usage of Mongol cultural markers was also a way to express the eastern links of European religious orders such as the Franciscans. His findings were published in his 1983 paper
The Mongolian Script in Giotto Paintings at the Scrovegni Chapel at Padova.
Kufic Arabic script is even more often used in a similar way, known as
Pseudo-Kufic. File:Giotto Crucifixion circa 1330 with soldier wearing headband in pseudo Mongol script.jpg|
Giotto's
Crucifixion with soldier wearing headband in pseudo-Mongol script, circa 1330. Around 1300, an influx of Mongol Empire textiles found their way to Italy, and were to prove quite influential in Italian art. These textiles even revolutionized Italian textile designs. Between 1265 and 1308, communications between Western and
Il-Khanid rulers led to numerous exchanges of people and presents, as when about 100 Mongols in Mongol dress visited Rome for the
Papal Jubilee of
Pope Boniface VIII in 1300. Large quantities of
panni tartarici (
Tatar cloth) were recorded in the Papal inventory of 1295, and must have been diplomatic gifts from the Il-Khanate. Later on, Western merchants were also able to purchase such textiles from
Tabriz, and the Mongol capital of
Sultaniya, established by
Öljaitü between 1305 and 1313, and until the capture of the
Cilician Armenia harbour of
Ayas by the
Mamluks in 1347. The Tatar cloths were a produce of transcultural exchange under Mongol rule. They are described as Mongol
nasij cloth, coming from Mongol, by author Lauren Arnold. Mongol Empire textiles had a strong impact on Italian textile design from around 1330. A type of Tartar cloth that was adopted in the West consisted in small-pattern designs in dense composition. This sort of textile is represented in the clothing of the angel Gabriel in the
Annunciation by
Simone Martini (1333). Other designs involved naturally flowing compositions of flowers and vines with fantastic animals. Such a textile is depicted as the background curtain in
Giotto's
Coronation of the Virgin (circa 1330), the earliest such depiction of a Tartar cloth. Transmission of Chinese textile designs from the Mongol
Yuan Dynasty also occurred: Textiles of
Iran and
Iraq in the 14th century incorporated Chinese
phoenix designs in silk and gold thread, and Italian weavers adopted such designs from the second half of the 14th century, complete with phoenix designs and silk and gold thread. These designs are of Chinese origin, and reached Europe via the Mongol realm. File:Paolo Veneziano 002.jpg|
Fig. 28: Chinese-style floral designs are visible in the mantles of Christ and Mary in
Coronation of the Virgin by
Paolo Veneziano (circa 1350). File:Lampas with phoenix silk and gold Iran or Irak 14th century.jpg|
Lampas with
phoenix, silk and gold,
Iran or
Iraq, 14th century. File:Lampas textile silk and gold Italy second half of 14th century.jpg|
Lampas textile, silk and gold, Italy, second half of 14th century. ==Mongols in European painting==