Themes in folklore The struggles against much more numerous and well-armed invaders cost much hardship on the part of ordinary people, and these struggles and hardships became an important part of the folklore of the modern Chechen and Ingush. One particular tale recounts how the former inhabitants of
Argun, during the first invasion and the surrounding area held a successful defense (waged by men, women and children) of the slopes of Mount
Tebulosmta, before returning after that to reconquer their home region.
Amjad Jaimoukha notes that many of the tales are, in fact, coincident with historical accounts by Western travelers such as
Pian de Carpine who reported that in 1250 a part of Alans had defended a mountain for 12 years.
End of Dzurdzuk statehood and of the feudal system However, fierce resistance did not prevent the utter destruction of the state apparatus of Dzurdzuketia. Historical and state documents (mainly written in Georgian script) were also destroyed in mass amounts. As
Amjad Jaimoukha puts it, "the historical link of times and cultures was broken". The
feudal system of vassals and lords also fell into shambles. The contribution of men, women, and children of all classes, paired with the destruction of the feudal system during the war, rich and poor, also helped the Vainakh develop a strong sense of
egalitarianism, which was one of the major causes of the revolt against their new lords after the end of the Mongol invasions.
Religious implications Pagan sanctuaries as well as the
Orthodox Christian churches in the south were utterly destroyed. Under the conditions of the invasion, Christianity was unable to sustain itself in Ingushetia, and as its sanctuaries and priests fell, those who had converted reverted to paganism for spiritual needs. As a result, "neo-paganism" gained in ascendance, as many new pagan temples were built, while Orthodox Christian churches were converted. The Malkhi, Lam-Aekkhii, and Kist clans, which reside in southern areas, however, remained Orthodox Christian.
Cultural effects The utter destruction of the Durdzuks' statehood, their lifestyle (and in the south, their religion), and much of their knowledge of history caused them to rebuild their culture in many ways. The population developed various methods of resistance and much of their later lifestyle during the resistance to the Mongols and in between the two wars. The clan system mapped onto battlefield organization. Guerrilla tactics using mountains and forests were perfected. It was during the Mongol invasions that the military defense towers that one associates today with the Vainakh population (see
Nakh architecture) came into being. Many served simultaneously as homes, as sentry posts, and as fortresses from which one could launch spears, arrows, etc. The overcrowding and lack of arable land caused the Chechens to devise new agricultural methods for the highlands including terracing plots and introducing soil. During the period after the invasions, due to contacts between the Durdzuks and Mongol and Turkic populations, there was a low degree of Mongolian cultural influences dating back to the period. The period where the Durdzuk state of
Simsir was a tribute to the
Golden Horde (during the fourteenth century and ending in 1395 when Simsir was destroyed by
Timurlane because of this alliance) is thought by
Amjad Jaimoukha to be the origin of the custom of
`amanat, whereby the children of nobles were given as pledged hostages. Such children were sent to the Khanate's court, where they learned the
Mongol language, and they could be put to death or enslaved if the Golden Horde desired. This custom later became associated with the giving of hostages to cement pledges across the North Caucasus. The concept of mythical beast known as the "
almaz" or "hun-sag", an evil forest creature with enchanted hair, also dates to Mongol influence (the same is true for the Circassian
almesti) with the word
almaz being a loan from Mongolian where it originally meant "forest-man"; Jaimoukha also proposes that the Mongol name may have become used in the place of a native name during the sojourn of the Golden Horde over Simsir.
Land conflicts with the Nogai over the rivers After defending the highlands, the Chechens attacked Mongol control of the lowlands (after both Mongol invasions had occurred). Much of this area still had nominal Chechen owners (as per the clan system which acknowledges the ownership of a piece of land by a certain teip), even after generations upon generations of not living there. Much was retaken, only to be lost again due to the second invasion. After that, the Chechens managed to take most (but not all) of their former holdings on the Sunzha, but most of the Terek remained in Kypchak hands. The conflicts did not stop, however, as there were clans that had ownership of lands now inhabited by Turkic peoples, meaning that if they did not retake the lands, they would lack their own territory and be forever reliant on the laws of hospitality of other clans, doing great damage to their honor. Conflicts between Nakh and Turkic peoples originated from the Mongol invasions when Dzurdzuks were driven out of the Terek and Sunzha rivers by Turco-Mongolian invaders (the
Nogais) and continued as late as the 1750s and 1770s. This meant that when invaded from the north, they found help from other sources. The Chechen feudal state of
Simsir, after the First Mongol Invasion (during which its monarchy somehow miraculously survived), allied itself not to Georgia, but to the
Golden Horde, and even nominally converted to Islam, when faced with the threat of invasion. This underlines the causes for the later conversion of the Chechens to Islam in the 16th to 19th centuries, in order to secure the sympathy of the
Ottoman Empire and the rest of the Muslim world in their conflict with the Christian state of Russia. ==See also==