Mongush Buyan-Badyrgy

Buyan-Badyrgy was born on 25April 1892, in , near the Ovaalyg-Khemchigesh river, in Barun-Khemchik kozhuun (administrative division), Tannu Uriankhai, then part of China's Qing dynasty. His father was Mongush Nomchug, a poor Arat herdsman with a large family. As an infant, with the consent of his parents, he was adopted by the noyon (chieftain) of Khemchik kozhuun, Khaidyp Uger-Daa, who ruled a third of Tuva's territory. According to the most common account, presented by Mongush Kenin-Lopsan, Buyan-Badyrgy's adoptive father invited many of the top experts in various languages to teach him and had him study numerous fields including history, astrology, medicine, mathematics, psychology and philosophy. ==Noyon and pre-independence Tuva==

Rise to noyon and early years Buyan-Badyrgy's adoptive father was praised by Europeans who met him for his "noble character, deep knowledge, and [his] ability to govern." As noyon, he held authority over the Khemchik kozhuun region. However, amid the Russian Civil War, several conflicts took place that delayed the independence of Uryankhay Krai. Chinese troops marched into the protectorate in fall 1918, occupying much of the region's southern and western portions. Mongolian troops followed suit soon after, occupying further land in the south. Anti-Russian riots, led by Tuvan officials, broke out in early 1919 which drove out the Provisional Siberian Government. This allowed China and Mongolia to take more control over the region. By 1921, the Soviets had defeated Alexander Kolchak, leader of the opposing White movement in the Civil War, and took control of the region by driving out the Chinese and Mongolians. ==Role in the Tuvan People's Republic==

All-Tuvan Constituent Khural In June 1921, a meeting was held between Buyan-Badyrgy, representing two kozhuuns, and a Russian delegation led by , a representative of the Siberian Revolutionary Committee. This occurred with the convening of the All-Tuvan Constituent Khural from 13 to 16 August 1921, described by Khovalyg as "undoubtedly the most significant event in the history of the Tuvan people." The congress featured 63 representatives from seven of the nine kozhuuns, 17 Russian representatives including Safyanov, three Mongolians, and one representative from the Far Eastern Secretariat of the Comintern. Considered the most literate Tuvan leader, Buyan-Badyrgy was elected chairman of the congress. At the congress, Buyan-Badyrgy "showed himself to be a cautious, attentive, moderately democratic politician," according to Khovalyg, being an "unconditional supporter of an independent and self-sufficient Tuva." For his role in overseeing the congress, he has been considered one of the founders of the Tuvan state. He also played an important role in having the constitution give equality to all citizens; Tuva.Asia described this in 2011 as "a huge achievement – right from a feudal system to a society of democratic norms." Role in the state from 1921 to 1929 After Tannu Tuva was established as an independent state, the government, known as the General Central Council, was created; it included one representative for each kozhuun. Buyan-Badyrgy was named chairman of the council on the suggestion of I. G. Safyanov. Thus, starting on 16 August 1921, he was the Tuvan head of state, as well as acting as the head of government. He was also one of the leaders of the ruling Tuvan People's Revolutionary Party (TPRP) that controlled the government. Tannu Tuva kept close ties to the Soviet Union after independence. In the country's early years, Buyan-Badyrgy was among the most active promoters of Tuvan sovereignty. He remained the head of state and government until February 1922. Later that year, he was became the deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers (the cabinet), and he was also a member of the TPRP's Central Committee. The TPRP party, which he had helped found, was dissolved in 1922, but later reorganized in 1923, with Buyan-Badyrgy rejoining on 25 May 1923. He contributed to the creation of a new Tannu Tuva Constitution in 1923. On 20 September 1923, Buyan-Badyrgy was in attendance as the First Great Khural (People's Congress) of Tannu Tuva met in Kyzyl. This meeting created new subdivisions for the state, which was divided into six kozhuuns. It also resulted in the abolition of feudal titles and ranks, the creation of Tannu Tuva's financial system and budget, and the levying of taxes to fund the budget. It established a new cabinet of Tannu Tuva that had Buyan-Badyrgy appointed the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, the head of government and a position equivalent to prime minister. In addition to serving as the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, Buyan-Badyrgy also added the role of Minister of Foreign Affairs. From July to August 1924, Buyan-Badyrgy attended a tripartite conference in Kyzyl of Tuvans, Russians, and Mongolians, which he chaired. This meeting addressed an armed conflict in the Khemchik kozhuun and discussed a proposal by two Tuvan leaders for the state to be annexed to Mongolia. Buyan-Badyrgy staunchly advocated for Tannu Tuva to remain independent and the meeting resulted with the kozhuun conflicts' being resolved and Tannu Tuva remaining independent; after the meeting, the Soviet Union decided to officially recognize the country. This led to the establishment of friendly relations with the Soviet Union in 1925, and Mongolia officially recognized the country in 1926. In September 1924, Buyan-Badyrgy contributed to another new Constitution of Tannu Tuva. Adopted at the Second Great Khural, it proclaimed that the country would develop along non-capitalist lines with the TPRP as the only party and the Tuvan section of the Communist International. At this point, Buyan-Badyrgy was described by researcher V. A. Dubrovsky as being at peak of his career, with Dubrovsky noting that "due to his natural talent and education, intelligence and foresight ... He enjoyed well-deserved authority among the Tuvans, Russians and Mongols." According to Khovalyg, he was known among contemporaries as a "skillful and purposeful defender of the interests of his people," and was considered a skilled diplomat. In October 1925, the TPRP established a political bureau and the position of TPRP General Secretary; Buyan-Badyrgy was the first to be elected to the latter post. In December, he led the establishment of a youth wing for the TPRP, an idea he had supported several years prior, and gave a welcoming speech at the All-Tuva Khural of the Union of Revolutionary Youth. He was named an honorary revolutionary youth member and was part of the Central Committee of the youth wing. Buyan-Badyrgy contributed to the adoption of another new Constitution in 1926, which resulted in the renaming of the Tannu Tuva People's Republic to the Tuvan People's Republic (TPR) and the adoption of the first official flag and emblems. After being re-elected as General Secretary in 1926, Buyan-Badyrgy resigned in September 1927. Despite his resignation, a Comintern representative, S. A. Natsov, still proposed his name for re-election, declaring that: "Comrade Buyan-Badyrgy, working in the leadership of the [TPRP] party, has done and is doing much for the further development of the party. It should be especially noted that a connection with the Communist International has been created, the party has become a member of the Peasant International. Whose merit is all this? All this is the merit of only Comrade Buyan-Badyrgy." He was appointed the Minister of Finance in November 1926, and in this role, he signed a contract for gold exploration and mining with the Russians in August 1927. He also served as the secretary of the Small Khural (parliament) from 1928 to 1929, and during this time, also worked for the Tuvan internal security as head of the investigative department. During the 1920s, Buyan-Badyrgy was also active in drafting bills in the legislature. He chaired the Tuvan legislative commission and was the author of the state's laws relating to marriage and family. Soviet diplomat A. G. Starkov described Buyan-Badyrgy's impact on Tuva as similar to that of Vladimir Lenin on Russia, while S. A. Natsov said that he was well-known in several countries outside of Tuva including Mongolia and China. A Russian ethnographer, M. G. Levin, who visited the state in 1926, noted that he "stands out from everyone else with his suit, manners, and subtle, intelligent face. Buyan-Badyrgy is a former prince, now the de facto head of state and the leader of a young, growing community." ==1929 coup, arrest and execution==

Buyan-Badyrgy was a staunch proponent of Buddhism and an active participant in the All-Tuvan Congress of Lamas. In the mid- and late-1920s, Tuvan head of government Donduk Kuular began an attempt to convert the country to a Buddhist theocracy; his efforts were increasingly irritating to the Soviet government, including Joseph Stalin. These youths returned in 1929 and, with the assistance of the Soviets and the Comintern, received positions of political authority. Influenced by the Soviets, they then led a coup d'état, with Salchak Toka, one of them, becoming the new leader and bringing about a Sovietization of Tuva. Buyan-Badyrgy was removed from office, expelled from his party, and was forcibly relocated to a different kozhuun. An armed rebellion took place in Khemchik kozhuun in March 1930, believed to have been started by former Tuvan elites in an alleged attempt to challenge the new government. Shortly after, Buyan-Badyrgy was arrested, without any investigation, on the charge of having organized it as well as another rebellion in 1924. He was imprisoned for two years, likely in Kyzyl. While in prison, he wrote a series of nine elegies, each including the word "sadness" in the title. He expressed grief that those he had sent to the university turned on him, writing in one poem that "The people I taught became the tigers." He wrote of the "sadness of my name" in his last poem, realizing his impending execution, but noted that "The day of exposing lies will certainly come ... And there will be time to glorify my righteousness." In 1932, the TPRP Political Bureau called Buyan-Badyrgy an "enemy of the people" and alleged his participation in "counter-revolutionary banditry." On 22 March, at age 39, he was executed by firing squad without trial or investigation. Donduk Kuular and several other prominent former Tuvan leaders were executed alongside him. ==Personal life and legacy==

Buyan-Badyrgy was married. Although he had no children of his own, he adopted three children; In 2012, the government of Tuva established the Order of Buyan-Badyrgy, the second-highest honor in the region (behind the Order of the Republic), and the first recipient was Kenin-Lopsan. In September 2014, a monument was built to him in the capital city of Tuva, Kyzyl, and another monument of Buyan-Badyrgy was erected in 2015. He is included in the State Book "Honored People of Tuva of the 20th Century", an honor equivalent to receiving the Order of the Republic, Tuva's highest award. ==Notes==