Mont Cenis Pass Railway

• In 1849, plans for the Victor Emmanuel Railway were presented to Government of Sardinia. • In 1850, the project was announced to public. • In 1854, the Piedmont section of the railway was completed. • In 1856, the Savoy section was completed as far as Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne. • In 1854 and 1856, the Suez Canal concession was granted. • In 1857, the Mont Cenis Tunnel Railway was authorised, with work starting soon after. • In 1860, Parma, Tuscany, Modena, and Romagna joined the Kingdom of Sardinia. At the same time, Sardinia ceded Savoy and Nice to France. • In 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, unifying Italy. • In 1861, Fell proposed the idea of a temporary Summit Railway to the French and Italian Governments. • In 1862, Direction of the Victor Emmanuel Railway was split between Savoy, France, and Piedmont, Italy. • In 1866, an agreement with both governments to build the Fell summit line was signed. • In 1868, on 15 June, the Summit Railway line opened. • In 1869, Brindisi's port was upgraded. • In 1869, in November, the Suez Canal opened. • In 1870, the main Mont Cenis Tunnel was pierced through. • In 1871, on 16 October, the Tunnel Railway opened. The Summit Railway ended the day before. • In 1872, the Overland Telegraph connected London and Melbourne. • In 1873, Jules Verne's novel Around the World in Eighty Days was published, using the completed train service. However, the train should have passed through the Frejus tunnel, so apparently Verne was not aware that Mont Cenis was already closed by then. ==The setting==

By the early 1860s, most of a rail connection between Calais and Brindisi had been built, much of it by Thomas Brassey and John Barraclough Fell. The only major remaining problem was the crossing of the Alps. Work on the Fréjus or Mont Cenis tunnel had started in 1857, but it looked as though it would take many years to build, using traditional tools and gunpowder. In 1866, at a British Association meeting, Fell reported how four years earlier he had been asked to design some means of improving on the existing horse-drawn transport across the Alps over the Mont Cenis Pass. The slopes and curves were too much for a conventional train, and no such railway had yet been built anywhere, but Fell managed to design a suitable system, with pairs of horizontal wheels beneath the engine bearing on a third rail placed centrally between the running rails, and he patented it. ==Experiments==

Experiments on the new locomotive were carried out between 1863 and 1865 on a purpose-built railway of gauge near Whaley Bridge adjacent to—and, at one point, passing under—the Bunsal Incline of the Cromford and High Peak Railway at gradients of 1 in 13 and 1 in 12, with curves up to radius. Early experiments were private, but public experiments took place in January. They showed that the light locomotive would not work on the 1-in-12 slope without the central rail drive but could tow four wagons weighing 7 tons each with it. ==Permission to build==

With this information, the Mont Cenis Concessionary Company was formed on 12 April 1864 to obtain concessions from the two governments to build a railway on the public road over the pass until the tunnel should be opened. The subscribers were the Duke of Sutherland, Thomas Brassey, Sir Morton Peto, Edward Betts, James Lister, Thomas Crampton, Alexander Brogden, James Cross, Fell, James Brunlees, Joseph Jopling, T S Cutbill, and C. Lowinger. On behalf of the company, Fell approached the French and Italian governments for permission to build the railway. The governments would not be asked for any money. The company expected to make a profit. The French government wanted more proof that the scheme was practicable. The Italians said that they would grant permission if the French did. To provide additional evidence, a second test line was constructed along the zig-zag section from Lanslebourg to the summit. It was long with a ruling gradient of 1 in 12 and an average of 1 in 13. It started at and rose to . Rails were borrowed from the Victor Emmanuel Railway. This test line was completed by 23 January 1865. Meanwhile, a second locomotive was built by James Cross and Company of St Helens and was the first engine to be sold by him. It was designed by Alexander after consultation with Fell. Cross was probably used because Brassey's works was very busy. ==Onsite trials==

The trials were observed by officials from the governments of France, Italy, Britain, Austria, and Russia. There were 600 spectators. The British representative was Henry Whatley Tyler. Trials began on 28 February 1865. Only the first locomotive was available, but the trials were very successful. Captain Tyler came again in the spring when locomotive 2 had arrived. He found that some parts of this locomotive needed strengthening, and it would not be advisable to test it very much until replacements had been obtained. However, he did test it successfully. The trials gradually moved towards several runs on each day. On 19 July, they were observed by Frederick Hardman from the Times, and the French commissioners made the last of six visits. There were three more days of trials for the Italians and the Russians and a special day for James Brunlees on 31 July. This ended the official tests, but private testing continued until the end of November. The French concession was granted on 4 November 1865 and the Italian on 17 December. ==Mont Cenis Railway Company==

On 7 February 1866, the Mont Cenis Railway Company (Limited) (MCR) was established as company 2820c under the Companies Act 1862. There were 12,500 shares of £20 each. For each share, £1 was to be paid on application and £3 on allotment, and further calls of £4 would be made at intervals of not less than three months. The timing was very poor. In January 1866, the contractors Watson & Overend had failed with liabilities of £1½ million, and on 5 February, the railway promoter Thomas Savin failed. The directors and other officers of the company were the Duke of Sutherland (President), Sir James Hudson (Chairman), Thomas Brassey, The Duke of Vallombrosa, Lord Abinger, Sir Morton Peto, Sir Robert Dallas, Edward Blount, Jervoise Smith, Thomas Crampton, W B Buddicom, Alexander Brogden, Fell, James Brunlees (Engineer), and T S Cutbill (Secretary). By October, Cutbill had been replaced by W.J.C. Cutbill. On 11 May 1866, Overend, Gurney and Company failed. Samuel Morton Peto and Edward Betts also failed and their support was lost. In August, the directors found that they each had to take up five more shares for the company to qualify for the London Stock Exchange. By 21 August, 8,678 shares had been taken up by 448 shareholders. Among these, Brassey took 945, Brogden 792, the Duke of Sutherland 542, Abinger 292, Brunlees 137, Crampton 237, and Fell 242. ==Construction==

In early 1866, detailed plans and sections were drawn up for submission to governments. Construction began in March. The railway was to be long and would follow the existing roadway over the pass, although at villages, the railway had to leave the road and use a separate right-of-way. Where it was necessary for the track to cross the roadway on the level, the tall centre rail was lowered into a trough by the operation of a lever. Out of the standard width of the road, the company was allowed for track, with the governments retaining for roadway. There was a continuous wooden barrier separating the roadway from the rail track. Over a distance of , the track had to run in snow shelters. Where avalanches were likely, these had to be built of masonry; elsewhere, they were of sheet iron. At some hairpin bends, adjustments had to be made to meet the railway's minimum radius of . Much of the road was built on a shelf, and this had to be strengthened or widened in places. On the Italian side, the road had been built with a gentle slope. This had proved too prone to avalanches and had been replaced by a steep zig-zag called Les Échelles (the ladders), but the railway had to revert to the original roadway because the "ladders" were too severe for it. This section needed of masonry avalanche shelter. Using the Michelin map, the rise from St Michel is and from Susa . J. B. Fell was appointed "Managing Director at the Mont Cenis". It seems that direct labour was employed on the French side, whereas on the Italian side, the contractor Gianoli & Canova was used. ==Locomotives==

Fell had intended to have two classes of locomotives: one to pull heavy loads slowly up steep slopes from Lanslebourg and Susa, and one to run faster on easily-graded sections between Lanslebourg and St Michel. He was overruled by his co-directors. A. Alexander was appointed locomotive engineer, and Brassey's Canada Works had quoted to build the locomotives. After the first one was built, the directors discovered that French law prohibited importation of foreign machinery subject to a French patent. Fell had taken out at least one French patent. At this late stage, the most reputable French manufacturers were busy, so they used Ernest Goüin et Cie. of Paris, even though Alexander had reported on them unfavourably. In August, the locomotives were expected to be delivered in February, March, and April 1867. The locomotives were designed by Alexander, and his designs were passed by the board. The rolling stock was built by Chevalier, Cheilus & Cie of Paris. ==September 1866==

Visit report At the beginning of September 1866, Abinger, Brogden, and Vallambrosa visited the works. They found 2,200 men employed, rails being laid at both ends and on the plateau of the line, and a scarcity of horses owing to the Austro-Italian war. On the French side, the stones forming the foundation of the road were so large that blasting was required to make holes for the fence. The locomotives might possibly be an issue. Otherwise nothing seemed likely to delay them. Flood It had been a cool summer, so the ice had not melted as much as usual. On 25 September, after a few days of warm rain, a tributary to the river Arc swept debris into the main river where it formed a dam, creating a reservoir. When this dam finally burst, there was a deluge that caused damage at fifty places between Termignon and St Michel. Between Lanslebourg and Susa, all was well. The permanent way was nearly complete by early December, when snow stopped the work. ==February 1867 general meeting==

On 19 February 1867, at the second half-yearly general meeting, shareholders were told that most of the line would be ready by May. On 4 March, Fell wrote to the board that he expected the line to open in September. On 4 April, the board were told that locomotive construction was well behind schedule. The first locomotive should be ready by 1 May, the second in June, and the remainder to follow at the rate of one per week. The first carriage was ready apart from its wheels. ==August 1867==

Board of Trade inspection In mid-August, the Board of Trade dispatched Captain Tyler to inspect the railway and the tunnel. On the way, he inspected the locomotives and rolling stock under construction in Paris. On 22 August, the repairs between St Michel and Lanslebourg were incomplete. However, on 26 August, a test run was attempted. Two Goüin locomotives had been delivered but were not yet ready for service. So they had to use the second of the two British-built engines, built by James Cross at St Helens. Inspection of tunnel During the same visit, Brogden and Tyler investigated the tunnel. In the letter mentioned above, Brogden reported that progress was good. The tunnel should be pierced in three years and completed in four—much earlier than previously anticipated. Tyler's official report on the tunnel was that 7,366 metres had been bored, 4,884 remained, and that the French had passed through the hard quartz and returned to the softer schist. The link between the tunnel and the French railway was another matter. It would not begin for a year and would take another four years to complete. ==September 1867 French and Italian regulators==

The company asked the French and Italian regulators to come to an inspection on 20 September, with a view to open for freight as soon as possible and open for passengers in October. They were optimistic. However, later in September, they had a successful private test using the No. 3 locomotive, the first from Goüin. In October, Brassey was touring his contracts. On the 12th, he arrived at Mont-Cenis expecting a successful test. It was a cold and wet day. The test was a disaster. Not only No. 3 but two other locomotives broke down in the attempt to complete the test. Brassey had to stand in the cold and wet, waiting for replacement engines. According to Helps, his biographer, Brassey developed a chill which led eventually to his death. ==November 1867==

General meeting At a general meeting in November, shareholders were informed that Goüin had used inferior iron on the rocking shafts, rather than first-grade iron or forged steel as specified, and the shafts therefore had failed in the test. Also, the trailing axles could not accommodate the tight curves and would have to be removed. This meant that the rear driving wheels would need additional bearings and springs. On 17 April 1868, the Times reported that seven locomotives had had their shafts replaced or shortly would do. Late delivery of rolling stock Chevalier were late in delivering the rolling stock. According to reports by Fell, Brogden, and Barnes, 103 wagons were already being erected at St Michel in August 1867, but by February 1868, the company had only 2 of 11 first-class carriages, 3 of 5 second-class, and 3 of 8 third-class, even though they were all due by the previous June. The delivered carriages were all four-wheelers, and the missing ones were six-wheelers. When the line opened in June 1868, The Engineer reported 7 first-class carriages, 4 second-class, and 8 third-class—officially a full complement, but not so according to the internal information. In 1870, Fell reported that, when the six-wheelers did arrive, they ran more steadily and with less resistance than the four-wheelers. (Brunlees specified that a sliding axle box designed by John Clark of the North London Railway was to be used for the six-wheelers, whereas the four-wheelers had ordinary axles.) Financial problems There were financial problems. In March 1867, the board agreed to seek a loan of £60,000 against guarantees by directors. On 12 September, The Times published an offering of £125,000 of 7% debentures, adding that the line would probably open in October. No applications were received. However, to keep things going, Brassey guaranteed £15,000 needed immediately. A general meeting in November authorised an increase in the company's borrowing powers from £125,000 to £202,000 and an interest rate of 10%. Liabilities were stated to be £182,000. £150,000 had been raised by shares and only £2,600 by debentures. It was decided to issue £200,000 worth of bonds at 10%. The directors agreed to buy £150,000, provided the other shares subscribed £50,000. If this were not to happen within 14 days, then the works were liable to be sold in discharge of the liabilities. Later, more creditors were discovered, increasing the liabilities to £243,000. The company survived this crisis, although the bonds may not all have been sold. ==Testing and final opening, April–June 1868==

On 20 April, after a lot of work, a test train carrying 25 tons was taken from St Michel to Susa, returning the following day. On the 23rd, another engine did the return journey within the day, taking 5 ½ hours to run the length, including one hour of stoppages. A Franco-Italian commission did a thorough check from 28 April to 2 May. They specified some interlocking, but otherwise gave permission to open for goods traffic immediately, with passenger traffic after 15 successful days of goods traffic. The trial period was completed on 2 June. The promoters began to arrive in mid-May. At 11:30 on 23 May, they enjoyed a celebratory journey from Susa to St Michel. The party of 54 included Blount, Brogden, Buddicom, Fell, Cutbill, Bell, Blake, Alexander, Barnes, Gohierre, Desbrière, Crampton, Count Arrivabene, and Signor Milla, the Italian government commissioner. The Times and the Morning Post were represented. The public opening was announced for 8 June. Once again it did not happen, but this time the problem was coordination with the main railways. The actual first passenger train ran from Susa at 7:20 am on 15 June 1868. By 1 April, the tunnel boring amounted to 8,159 metres with 4,061 to go. ==The completed line==

The line had cost £392,000 to build, or £7,966 per mile. Brunlees had estimated £8,000 per mile. When passengers arrived at St Michel by the Paris-Lyon-Marseille (PLM) Railway, they had only to cross the platform to get onto the Fell railway train. Typically this had a Goüin locomotive, a guard's van, a goods van, and three coaches. The crew consisted of a driver, a fireman, a chief guard, and two brakesmen, one to each coach. There were no continuous brakes. The Westinghouse brake was patented in 1872. Trains left Susa at 7:20 and 8:30. These trains arrived at St Michel at 11:45 and 12:55. The journey time was 5 hours 15 minutes because French time was 50 minutes behind Italian. The 8:30 train had a connection that left Turin at 5:30 am. Return trains left St Michel at 13:15 and 15:55. On the opening day, the 7:20 comprised one 1st-, one 2nd-, and one 3rd-class coach, with two vans. The 8:30 coaches were all 1st-class, also with two vans. They both arrived slightly early. ==Floods, August 1868==

Mail was carried from the start. From 1 August, the French, Italian, and MC Railways were coordinated so as to deliver mail a day earlier and book passengers right through, but on 10 August, a torrential storm washed away a length of road, leaving the rail suspended. Then on the night of 17/18 August, the Arc flooded again and washed away the Pont de la Denise, partly because of spoil left by tunnel builders for the standard railway. Footbridges were used to allow passengers to walk over the breaks. The PLM line had been damaged between Saint-Michel-de-Maurienne and Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne. The MCR was reopened in late September, but the PLM took longer, and stagecoaches were used between St Michel and St Jean for several more weeks. The PLM was glad of any excuse to divert its passengers from Mont Cenis to Marseille. However, the MCR was popular even when there were problems. ==General manager==

At this time, there was no general manager on the spot, and the two principal officials Gohierre and Barnes did not get on. So the board appointed James Anderson Longridge (1817–1896), son of Michael Longridge, an associate of George Stephenson to whom James himself had been apprenticed. Once again, several locomotives required new cranks. More and better engines were needed, although the company could ill afford them. ==New locomotives==

In August 1868, T.R. Crampton went to Mont Cenis to get Barnes’ approval on a new locomotive design. In mid-November, four engines were on order from Cail et Cie, a manufacturer who had built Crampton-designed engines for the French mainline companies in the 1850s. They were to be "hired on the deferred purchase principle" as the directors’ report put it. ==Snow blockage, November 1868==

From 7 to 10 November 1868, there was a heavy fall of snow, and a locomotive broke down. The covered ways were still incomplete despite the pleas from Valentine Graeme Bell. This led to some delays, but only one train was cancelled. In March 1869, a train was blocked by snow drifts. The mail was carried on by sledge but also was overwhelmed by an avalanche. The driver escaped, but it took two days to recover the mail. ==General meeting, February 1869==

At a general meeting in February 1869, the operating accounts from 15 June to 31 October 1868 showed that the expenses were 73% of receipts. However, the Balance Sheet for 31 October 1868 showed shareholders' funds £155,550, debentures £180,750, loans £17,500, and creditors £65,487. Creditors in France had agreed to defer payment, secured against the operating profit. The likelihood of the shareholders getting their money back was slim. The Duke of Sutherland and Jervoise Smith resigned. The Duke, having presided over a failure, may have felt that honour required his resignation. Furthermore, he was chairman of the Sutherland Railway. This too had run out of funds after opening from Bonar Bridge to Golspie in April 1868. He himself funded the next section. Brassey kept in touch with the MCR and provided funds when the creditors got difficult. ==Further developments==