Myxozoa

Myxozoans are endoparasitic animals exhibiting complex life cycles that, in most of the documented cases, involve an intermediate host, usually a fish, but in rare cases amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals; and a definitive host, usually an annelid or an ectoproct. Only about 100 life cycles have been resolved and it is suspected that there may be some exclusively terrestrial. The mechanism of infection occurs through valve spores that have many forms, but their main morphology is the same: one or two sporoplasts, which are the real infectious agent, surrounded by a layer of flattened cells called valve cells, which can secrete a layer protective coating and form float appendages. Integrated into the layer of valve cells are two to four specialized capsulogenic cells (in a few cases, one or even 15), each carrying a polar capsule containing coiled polar filaments, an extrudable organelle used for recognition, contact and infiltration. Myxospores are ingested by annelids, in which the polar filaments extrude to anchor the spore to the gut epithelium. Opening of the shell valves allows the sporoplasms to penetrate into the epithelium. Subsequently, the parasite undergoes reproduction and development in the gut tissue, and finally produces usually eight actinosporean spore stages (actinospores) within a pansporocyst. After mature actinospores are released from their hosts they float in the water column. Upon contact with skin or gills of fish, sporoplasms penetrate through the epithelium, followed by development of the myxosporean stage. Myxosporean trophozoites are characterized by cell-in-cell state, where the secondary (daughter) cells develop in the mother (primary) cells. The presporogonic stages multiply, migrate via nervous or circulatory systems, and develop into sporogonic stages. At the final site of infection, they produce mature spores within mono- or di-sporic pseudoplasmodia, or poly-sporic plasmodia. Relationships between myxosporeans and their hosts are often highly evolved and do not usually result in severe diseases of the natural host. Infection in fish hosts can be extremely long-lasting, potentially persisting for the lifetime of the host. However, an increasing number of myxosporeans have become pathogens with significant impact to the commercial fish industry, largely as a result of aquaculture bringing new species into contact with myxosporeans to which they had not been previously exposed, and to which they are highly susceptible. The economic impact of such parasites can be severe, especially where prevalence rates are high; they may also have a severe impact on wild fish stocks. The diseases caused by myxosporeas in cultured fish with the most significant economic impact worldwide are proliferative kidney disease (PKD) caused by the malacosporean T. bryosalmonae, and whirling disease, caused by a myxosporean M. cerebralis; both diseases affect salmon. Enteromyxosis is caused by E. leei in cultured marine sparids, while proliferative gill disease (or "hamburger disease") is caused by H. ictaluri in catfish and S. renicola infections occur in common carp. ==Anatomy==

Myxozoans are very small animals, typically 10–300 μm in length. Like other cnidarians they possess cnidocysts, which were referred to as "polar capsules" before the discovery that myxozoans are cnidarians. These cnidocysts fire tubules as in other cnidarians; some inject substances into the host. However, the tubules lack hooks or barbs, and in some species are more elastic than in other cnidarians. Myxozoans have secondarily lost epithelial structures, a nervous system, gut, and cilia. Most lack muscles, though these are retained in some members of malacosporea. Those who have lost their muscles move around inside the host using other forms of locomotion, such as the use of filopodia, spore valve contractions, amoeboid movements, and rapidly creating and reabsorbing folds on the cell membrane. Myxozoans do not undergo embryogenesis during development and have lost true gametes. Its actual metabolism is currently unknown. ==Phylogenetics==

Myxozoans were originally considered to be protozoans, and were included among other non-motile forms in the group Sporozoa. As their distinct nature became clear through 18S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequencing, they were relocated in the metazoa. Detailed classification within the metazoa was however long hindered by conflicting rDNA evidence: although 18S rDNA suggested an affinity with Cnidaria, other rDNA sampled, and the HOX genes of two species, were more similar to those of the Bilateria. The discovery that Buddenbrockia plumatellae, a worm-like parasite of bryozoans up to 2 mm in length, is a myxozoan Similarities between myxozoan polar capsules and cnidarian nematocysts had been drawn for a long time, but were generally assumed to be the result of convergent evolution. Taxonomists now recognize the outdated subgroup Actinosporea as a life-cycle phase of Myxosporea. Molecular clocks suggest that myxozoans and their closest relatives, the Polypodiozoa, shared their last common ancestor with medusozoans about 600 million years ago, during the Ediacaran period. ==Taxonomy==

Myxozoan taxonomy has undergone great and important changes in its levels of generic, family and suborder classification. Fiala et al. (2015) proposed a new classification based on spores. ==See also==