The modern history of Alaska Natives began in the eighteenth century with the initial contact between Alaskan First Nations and
Russian explorers sailing from
Siberia. Subsequently, in the nineteenth century, British and American traders, coming mostly from eastern settlements in North America, arrived in the region. In some areas of Alaska, the active presence of
Christian missionaries did not occur until the twentieth century.
Russian colonial period Vitus Bering spotted Alaska during an expedition. Subsequently, in the 18th century, Alaska Natives encountered Russians, with the timing of this contact varying among different Native groups across Alaska. Arriving by ship from Siberia, in the mid-eighteenth century, Russians established trade with Alaska Natives, particularly in the
Aleutian Islands. They founded settlements around their trading posts, which included
Russian Orthodox missionaries. These missionaries were the first to translate
Christian scripture into Native languages, such as
Tlingit. The lasting impact of this period is evident in the 21st century with numerous Russian Orthodox Christian congregations in Alaska composed predominantly of Alaska Natives. The Sibero-Russian
promyshlenniki, rather than engaging in hunting and harvesting marine life themselves, coerced the
Aleuts into performing this labor,
enserfing the Aleuts. As news for the fur trade spread, competition among Russian companies intensified.
Catherine the Great, upon ascending to the throne in 1763, expressed goodwill towards the Aleuts and encouraged fair treatment. However, the increasing competition between trading companies, which eventually consolidated into larger and more powerful corporations, led to conflicts that worsened relations with the
Indigenous populations. Over time, the situation became dire for the Aleuts and other Native Alaskan people affected by Russian contact. As the animal populations declined, the Aleuts, already dependent on the new barter economy driven by the
fur trade with the Russians, faced increasing pressure to take greater risks in the dangerous waters of the North Pacific to hunt for more otter. The
Shelikhov-Golikov Company, and later
Russian-American Company developed as a monopoly, using skirmishes and systematic violence as tools for the colonial exploitation of the Indigenous peoples. When the Aleut revolted and won some victories, the Russians retaliated with deadly force, destroying their boats and hunting equipment, leaving them no means of survival. The most devastating impact on the Aleut population during the initial two generations of Russian contact (1741/1759-1781/1799 AD) was the introduction of new diseases from Eurasia. Approximately 80% of the Aleut population perished from these
infectious diseases, to which they had no
immunity, unlike Europeans among whom these diseases have been
endemic for centuries.
Effects of Russian colonization , ; photographed by
Edward S. Curtis. The Russian Tsarist government expanded into Indigenous territory in present-day Alaska for its own geopolitical reasons. It consumed natural resources of the territory during the trading years, and
Russian Orthodoxy was evangelized. Their movement into these populated areas of Indigenous communities altered the demographic and natural landscape. Historians have suggested that the
Russian-American Company exploited Indigenous peoples as a source of inexpensive labor. The Russian-American Company used military force on Indigenous families, taking them hostage until male community members produced furs for them.
Catherine the Great dissolved the giving of tribute in 1799, but her government initiated mandatory conscription of Indigenous men between the ages of 18 and 50 to become seal hunters strictly for the Russian American Company. With able-bodied men away on the hunt, villages were left with little protection as only women, children, and the elderly remained behind. Although records kept in the period were scarce, it has been said that 80% of the pre-contact population of the
Aleut people were gone by 1800. Relationships between Indigenous women and fur traders increased as Indigenous men were away from villages. This resulted in marriages and children that would come to be known as
Creole peoples, children who were Indigenous and Russian. Ioann Veniaminov, who later became
Saint Innocent of Alaska, was an important missionary who carried out the Orthodox Church's agenda to Christianize Indigenous populations. American settlers imposed
racial segregation and discriminatory laws similar to
Jim Crow laws, which severely limited Alaska Natives' opportunities and cultural practices, effectively treating them as
second-class citizens. This segregation manifested in various ways, including "
whites only" signs that prevented natives from entering certain buildings. Educational discrimination was also prevalent. In an 1880 court case, a child was barred from attending school with Americans because his stepfather was native. Children of mixed heritage could only attend American schools if their families abandoned their native culture. Simultaneously, the U.S. government implemented policies to disrupt Alaska Native family structures. Federal records show that disrupting native family units was a deliberate part of Federal Indian policy aimed at assimilating Indigenous children. The Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative played a major role in creating intergenerational trauma by removing children from their native villages and placing them in off-reservation boarding schools alongside children from other tribes. This system created artificial communities of Indigenous children throughout the boarding school network, resulting in new Indigenous family structures depending on whether children returned to their native villages or settled elsewhere after completing their education. These policies prohibited Alaska Native children from speaking their native languages, wearing traditional clothing, associating with other natives, consuming traditional foods, or practicing their religions. The resulting family separation and cultural eradication caused significant intergenerational trauma. In 1912, the
Alaska Native Brotherhood (ANB) was formed to help fight for citizenship rights. The Alaska Native Sisterhood (ANS) was created in 1915. Also in 1915, the Alaska Territorial legislature passed a law allowing Alaskan Natives the right to vote – but on the condition that they give up their cultural customs and traditions. The
Indian Citizenship Act, passed in 1924, gave all
Native Americans United States citizenship. The
Alaska Equal Rights Act of 1945, the first anti-discrimination state law in the U.S., occurred as a result of these protests. It entitled all Alaskans to "full and equal enjoyment" of public areas and businesses, a ban on segregating signs, Alaska became part of the United States in 1959 upon President Dwight D. Eisenhower recognizing Alaska as the 49th state. The Allotment Act was repealed in 1971, following ANSCA, at which time
reservations were ended. Another characteristic difference is that Alaska Native tribal governments do not have the power to collect taxes for business transacted on tribal land, per the
United States Supreme Court decision in
Alaska v. Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government (1998). Except for the Tsimshian, Alaska Natives no longer hold reservations but do control some lands. Under the
Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, Alaska Natives reserve the right to harvest
whales and other
marine mammals. ==Climate change==