Native Americans and World War II

veteran at the Bonus Army camp in Washington, D.C. July 1932 Although Native Americans were not drafted for World War I because they were not yet considered citizens of the United States, approximately 10,000 Native American men volunteered for duty. According to Bernstein, life on reservations was difficult for Native Americans prior to the war due to low levels of development and lack of economic opportunities. In 1939, the median income for Native American males living on reservations was $500, compared to the national average for males of $2,300. Nearly one quarter of Native Americans had no formal education, and even for high school graduates, few forms of conventional employment existed on reservations. In the absence of conventional employment, those Native Americans who stayed on the reservations generally worked the land and farmed. Native American men were included along with whites in the World War II draft. Initial reactions by Native Americans to the draft were mixed. While some were eager to join the military, others resisted. Bernstein argues that their still-questionable status as citizens of the United States at the outbreak of the Second World War made many Native Americans question volunteering for military service since "the Federal government had the power to force Indians to serve in the military but did not have the power to compel Mississippi to grant Indians the vote." Although some resisted the draft, many others who were not drafted still volunteered for the war. == Native home front ==

Well known American actor and humorist Will Rogers, a part of the Cherokee nation from Oklahoma, states, "The United States never broke a treaty with a foreign government and never kept one with the Indians." President Roosevelt was in need of more troops hence turning to the Native Americans for their services on the side of Axis Powers. Nearly, 2,500 Navajo constructed the Fort Wingate Ordinance Depot in New Mexico and Pueblo Indians built the Naval Supply Depot in Utah. Furthermore, women played a vital role by taking over traditional men duties on the reservations by manning the lookout stations, then becoming mechanics, lumberjacks, farms, and delivery personnel keeping society afloat as the war began. Native lands provided war essential materials such as oil, gas, lead, zinc, copper, vanadium, asbestos, gypsum, and goal. Even Navajo helium in New Mexico was used during the Manhattan Project to make the atomic bomb. ==Native service==

Against a background of the popular Hollywood image of the Native American warrior spirit in American popular culture, Native American men were generally regarded highly by their fellow soldiers, and their role appealed to the public. They first saw action in the Pacific Theater along with the rest of the US Army and Navy. The first known Native American casualty of war was a young Oklahoma man who died during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. One of the most significant benefits that Native American men and women obtained from the war effort were the honors they received for serving including pow wows arranged prior to their deployment or upon their return. Another benefit were the new skills that could be gained that might lead to better jobs. Due to both the waning sense of isolation on reservations brought on by the war and the influx of money, Native Americans began to have access to consumer goods and services. The average Native American income increased to $2,500 by 1944, two-and-a-half times greater than in 1940. However, the average salary of a Native American was still only a quarter of the average salary of a white American. More than 30 Native Americans were awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross, the third-highest aviation honor. Not counting the Purple Heart, more than 200 military awards were awarded to Native Americans. The most decorated Native American in the history of the United States Army is Pascal Poolaw, who, after World War II, went on the serve in the Korean War and the Vietnam War, earning a Distinguished Service Cross, four Silver Stars, five Bronze Stars, and three Purple Hearts. Although many Native Americans received recognition for their military service in terms of awards, these awards were later used during the termination period by the Bureau of Indian Affairs as proof that Native Americans were eager to assimilate into American culture. ==Navajo code talkers project==

in 1944. In February 1942, a civilian named Philip Johnston came up with the idea of using the Navajo language as military code. Johnston, a missionaries' son, grew up on a reservation and understood the complexity of the Navajo language. By September 1942, the American government had recruited several hundred Native Americans who spoke both Navajo and English to translate English words into the Navajo language to foil enemy understanding. Often working behind enemy lines, the code talkers were commended for their bravery and gained respect from fellow soldiers. The code itself was composed of carefully selected Navajo words that used poetic circumlocution so that even a Navajo-speaker would not be able to understand the communications without training. For example, there were no words in Navajo for military machines, weapons, or foreign countries, so these words were substituted with words that did exist in the Navajo language. For example, Britain was spoken as "between waters" (toh-ta), a dive bomber was a "chicken hawk" (gini), a grenade was a "potato" (ni-ma-si) and Germany was "iron hat" (besh-be-cha-he). In 2001, 28 Navajo Code Talkers were awarded Congressional Gold Medals, mostly posthumously. The group has also been commemorated in various media, including books, films, notably Windtalkers (2002) starring Nicolas Cage, Battle Cry starring Van Heflin, even a Navajo Code Talker GI Joe action figure. ==Postwar==

The war's aftermath, says Alison Bernstein, marked a "new era in Indian affairs" and turned "American Indians" into "Indian Americans." Upon returning to the US after the war, some Native American servicemen and women suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder and unemployment. Native Americans unfortunately were barred for serving their country even so simply as drinking alcohol due to older federal statues. Following the war, many Native Americans found themselves living in cities, rather than on reservations. In 1940, only five percent of Native Americans lived in cities, but by 1950, the number had ballooned to nearly 20 percent. Once Natives migrated into the cities they proved themselves by adjusting into white America and some did leave leave traditional cultures but did not dismiss their heritage. Additionally, they constructed a new Pan-Indian identity to cope with the differences that were perceived between themselves and white Americans. White Americans believed after World War II it was a turning point for Natives in order to integrate them into American society. Although there were positives and negatives with one allowing for standard living, health care, education and job opportunities. On the other hand, felt less of tribal influence and threat of forfeiting the security of the reservation. ==Gallery==

File:Poston, Arizona. Apache Indians assist in the unloading of beds for evacuees of Japanese ancestry a . . . - NARA - 536128.tif|Apaches assisting in the unloading of beds for Japanese internees at the Poston War Relocation Center on April 29, 1942. File:Photograph of Three Marine Corps Women Reservists, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, 10-16-1943 - NARA - 535876.tif|Native American women as Marine Corps Reservists at Camp Lejeune in 1943. The women here represent the Blackfeet, the Potawatomi, and the Ojibwe. File:Lt. Woody J. Cochran holding a Japanese flag, New Guinea, 04-01-1943 - NARA - 519155.jpg|Lieutenant Woody J. Cochran, a Cherokee Indian and bomber pilot, holding up a captured Japanese flag and Nambu pistol during the New Guinea campaign on April 1, 1943. File:Dan waupose.jpg|Dan Waupoose, a Menominee chief, training at Algiers, Louisiana, on August 24, 1943. File:Lt. Ernest Childers, a Creek, being congratulated by Gen. Jacob L. Devers after receiving the Congressional Medal of Hon - NARA - 535783restoredh.jpg|Lieutenant Ernest Childers, a Muscogee, being congratulated by General Jacob L. Devers shortly after receiving the Medal of Honor in 1944. File:Poston, Arizona. Mrs. A.D. Franchville, Superintendent of Home Economics on detail to Poston from D . . . - NARA - 539890.jpg|Hopi Indians at the Poston Center in September 1945, after it was turned over to the Colorado River Indian Reservation. File:Dan Akee, Navajo Code Talker.jpg|Dan Akee, a code talker from the Navajo Nation. File:Native American and Alaska Native World War II veterans.pdf|Percentage of Native American and Alaskan Native World War II veterans as of the 2010 US Census File:USMC-07737.jpg|A Navajo Code Talker relays a message on a field radio. The code talkers served in the South Pacific during World War II and were kept a secret until 1968 when the Navajo code was finally declassified. File:Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima, larger.jpeg|Private First Class Ira Hayes as one of the flag raisers on Mt. Suribachi. File:Adm Radford Capt Clark on USS Yorktown (CV-10) 1943.jpg|Admiral Radford with Captain Joseph "Jocko" Clark (left side) (Cherokee) on the USS Yorktown in 1943 ==See also ==