Neuroticism

Neuroticism is a trait in many models within personality theory, but there is some disagreement on its definition. It is sometimes defined as a tendency for quick arousal when stimulated and slow relaxation from arousal, especially concerning negative emotional arousal. This definition has some overlap with sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) as described by psychologist Elaine Aron, although SPS is associated with greater responsiveness both to adverse environments and supportive ones. Another definition focuses on emotional instability, negative emotionality, or maladjustment as opposed to emotional stability or good adjustment. This aligns with the conceptualization offered by Barlow and colleagues, where neuroticism is understood as a trait with genetic, neurobiological, and environmental roots. In this framework, neuroticism is marked by stress-specific reactivity as well as beliefs that the world is an unsafe or unpredictable place and difficult to cope with. Various personality tests produce numerical scores, and these scores are mapped onto the concept of "neuroticism" in various ways, which has created some confusion in the scientific literature, especially with regard to sub-traits or "facets". ==Measurement==

Like other personality traits, neuroticism is typically viewed as a continuous dimension rather than a discrete state. The extent of neuroticism is generally assessed using self-report measures, although peer-reports and third-party observation can also be used. Self-report measures are either lexical Deciding which measure of either type to use in research is determined by an assessment of psychometric properties and the time and space constraints of the study being undertaken. Lexical measures use individual adjectives that reflect neurotic traits, such as anxiety, envy, jealousy, and moodiness, and are very space and time efficient for research purposes. Lewis Goldberg (1992) developed a 20-word measure as part of his 100-word Big Five markers. Saucier (1994) developed a briefer 8-word measure as part of his 40-word mini-markers. Thompson (2008) For instance, statements in colloquial North American English like "feeling blue" or "being down in the dumps" are sometimes hard for non-native English-speakers to understand. Neuroticism has also been studied from the perspective of Gray's biopsychological theory of personality, using a scale that measures personality along two dimensions: the behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and the behavioural activation system (BAS). The BIS is thought to be related to sensitivity to punishment as well as avoidance motivation, while the BAS is thought to be related to sensitivity to reward as well as approach motivation. Neuroticism has been found to be positively correlated with the BIS scale, and negatively correlated with the BAS scale. Neuroticism has been included as one of the four dimensions that comprise core self-evaluations, one's fundamental appraisal of oneself, along with locus of control, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. The concept of core self-evaluations was first examined by Judge, Locke, and Durham (1997), There is a risk of selection bias in surveys of neuroticism; a 2012 review of N-scores said that "many studies used samples drawn from privileged and educated populations". A measure of the startle reflex can be used to predict the trait neuroticism with good accuracy; a fact that is thought by some to underlie the neurological basis of the trait. The startle reflex is a reflex in response to a loud noise that one typically has no control over, though anticipation can reduce the effect. The strength of the reflex as well as the time until the reflex ceases can be used to predict both neuroticism and extraversion. ==Mental disorder correlations==

Questions used in many neuroticism scales overlap with instruments used to assess mental disorders like anxiety disorders (especially social anxiety disorder) and mood disorders (especially major depressive disorder), which can sometimes confound efforts to interpret N scores and makes it difficult to determine whether each of neuroticism and the overlapping mental disorders might cause the other, or if both might stem from other causes. Correlations can be identified. It found that high neuroticism is predictive for the development of anxiety disorders, major depressive disorder, psychosis, and schizophrenia, and is predictive but less so for substance use and non-specific mental distress. Neuroticism in adults similarly was found to be associated with the frequency of self-reported problems. ==Theories of causation==

Mental-noise hypothesis Studies have found that the mean reaction times will not differ between individuals high in neuroticism and those low in neuroticism, but that, with individuals high in neuroticism, there is considerably more trial-to-trial variability in performance reflected in reaction time standard deviations. In other words, on some trials neurotic individuals are faster than average, and on others they are slower than average. It has been suggested that this variability reflects noise in the individual's information processing systems or instability of basic cognitive operations (such as regulation processes), and further that this noise originates from two sources: mental preoccupations and reactivity processes. Flehmig et al. (2007) studied mental noise in terms of everyday behaviours using the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire, which is a self-report measure of the frequency of slips and lapses of attention. A "slip" is an error by commission, and a "lapse" is an error by omission. This scale was correlated with two well-known measures of neuroticism, the BIS/BAS scale and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. Results indicated that the CFQ-UA (Cognitive Failures Questionnaire- Unintended Activation) subscale was most strongly correlated with neuroticism (r = .40) and explained the most variance (16%) compared to overall CFQ scores, which only explained 7%. The authors interpret these findings as suggesting that mental noise is "highly specific in nature" as it is related most strongly to attention slips triggered endogenously by associative memory. In other words, this may suggest that mental noise is mostly task-irrelevant cognitions such as worries and preoccupations. Evolutionary psychology The theory of evolution may also explain differences in personality. For example, one of the evolutionary approaches to depression focuses on neuroticism and finds that heightened reactivity to negative outcomes may have had a survival benefit, and that furthermore a positive relationship has been found between neuroticism level and success in university with the precondition that the negative effects of neuroticism are also successfully coped with. Likewise, a heightened reactivity to positive events may have had reproductive advantages, selecting for heightened reactivity generally. Terror management theory According to terror management theory (TMT) neuroticism is primarily caused by insufficient anxiety buffers against unconscious death anxiety. Genetic and environmental factors A 2013 review found that "Neuroticism is the product of the interplay between genetic and environmental influences. Heritability estimates typically range from 40% to 60%." In children and adolescents, psychologists speak of temperamental negative affectivity that, during adolescence, develops into the neuroticism personality domain. Mean neuroticism levels change throughout the lifespan as a function of personality maturation and social roles, but also the expression of new genes. Neuroticism in particular was found to decrease as a result of maturity by decreasing through age 40 and then leveling off. Further studies have been conducted trying to tighten experimental design by using genetics to add additional differentiation among participants, as well as twin study models. A related trait, behavioral inhibition, or "inhibition to the unfamiliar", has received attention as the trait concerning withdrawal or fear from unfamiliar situations, which is generally measured through observation of child behavior in response to, for example, encountering unfamiliar individuals. This trait in particular has been hypothesized to be related to amygdala function, but the evidence so far has been mixed. ==Epidemiology==

A research over large samples has shown that levels of neuroticism are higher in women than men. Neuroticism is also found to decrease slightly with age. The same study noted that no functional MRI studies have yet been performed to investigate these differences, calling for more research. Many personality traits were found to have had larger personality differences between men and women in developed countries compared to less developed countries, and differences in three traits—extraversion, neuroticism, and people-versus-thing orientation—showed differences that remained consistent across different levels of economic development, which is also consistent with the "possible influence of biologic factors." A 2013 review found that a high level of neuroticism in young adults is a risk factor for triggering mood disorders. Neuroticism is also a possible risk factor for developing an addiction disorder to internet. Investigation of the Instagram users showed the preference of cosmetic products and intolerance of weapons among highly neurotic users. Neuroticism has also been found to be associated with older age. In 2007, Mroczek and Spiro found that among older men, upward trends in neuroticism over life as well as increased neuroticism overall both contributed to higher mortality rates. China According to a 2021 analysis by Princeton University academic Rory Truex of survey results, those discontented with the Chinese Communist Party typically showed high neuroticism, while CCP members and supporters showed the opposite. Russia According to a 2017 research, higher neuroticism in Russia is correlated with lower support for President Vladimir Putin. == Maladaptive (risky) behaviors ==

When neuroticism is described as a personality trait that measures emotional stability, research has indicated that it is also involved in maladaptive behaviors to regulate an individual's emotions. High levels of neuroticism in an individual is associated with anxiety and overthinking, as well as irritability and impulsiveness. Studies have shown that individuals with higher levels of neuroticism are associated with a shortened life span, a greater likelihood of divorce, and a lack of education. To cope with the negative emotionality, these individuals may engage in maladaptive forms of coping, such as procrastination, substance abuse, etc. With these internal pressures, due to these negative emotions, neuroticism often relates to difficulties with emotion regulation, leading to engagement in divergent (risky) behaviors. Due to the facets associated with neuroticism, it can be viewed as a negative personality trait. A common perception of the personality trait most closely associated with risky behaviors is extraversion, due to the correlated adjectives such as adventurous, enthusiastic, and outgoing. These adjectives allow the individual to feel the positive emotions associated with risk-taking. However, neuroticism can also be a contributing factor, just for different reasons. As anxiety is one of the facets of neuroticism, it can lead to indulgence in anxiety-based maladaptive and risky behaviors. Neuroticism is considerably stable over time, and research has shown that individuals with higher levels of neuroticism may prefer short-term solutions, such as risky behaviors, and neglect the long-term costs. This is relevant to neuroticism because it is also associated with impulsivity. One of the distinct traits of impulsivity is called urgency, which is a predisposition to experiencing strong impulses that can lead to impulsive behavior, while dealing with the negative emotions attached. Urgency can be both negative and positive; positive urgency deals with positive emotions and the contrast for negative urgency. Despite the negative emotions that are prominent in neuroticism, research indicates that it is combination of the negative emotions present, together with the positive emotions that are generated by the engagement in maladaptive behaviors. == See also ==