While the concept of sexual objectification is important within feminist theory, ideas vary widely on what constitutes sexual objectification and what are the ethical implications of such objectification. Some feminists such as
Naomi Wolf find the concept of
physical attractiveness itself to be problematic, with some
radical feminists being opposed to any evaluation of another person's sexual attractiveness based on physical characteristics.
John Stoltenberg goes so far as to condemn as wrongfully objectifying any sexual fantasy that involves the visualization of a woman. Radical feminists view objectification as playing a central role in reducing women to what they refer to as the "oppressed sex
class". While some feminists view mass media in societies that they argue are
patriarchal as objectifying, they often focus on
pornography as playing an egregious role in habituating men to objectify women. Cultural critics such as
Robert Jensen and
Sut Jhally accuse
mass media and advertising of promoting the objectification of women to help promote goods and services, and the television and film industries are commonly accused of normalizing the sexual objectification of women. The objection to the objectification of women is not a recent phenomenon. In the French
Enlightenment, for example, there was a debate as to whether a woman's breasts were merely a sensual enticement or rather a natural gift. In
Alexandre Guillaume Mouslier de Moissy's 1771 play
The True Mother (
La Vraie Mère), the title character rebukes her husband for treating her as merely an object for his sexual gratification: "Are your senses so gross as to look on these breasts – the respectable treasures of nature – as merely an embellishment, destined to ornament the chest of women?" The issues concerning sexual objectification became first
problemized during the 1970s by feminist groups. Since then, it has been argued that the phenomenon of female sexual objectification has increased drastically since its problematization in all levels of life, and has resulted in negative consequences for women, especially in the political sphere. However, a rising form of new third-waver feminist groups have also taken the increased objectification of women as an opportunity to use the female body as a mode of power. Some
social conservatives have taken up aspects of the
feminist critique of sexual objectification. In their view, however, the increase in the sexual objectification of both sexes in Western culture is one of the negative legacies of the
sexual revolution. These critics, notably
Wendy Shalit, advocate a return to pre-sexual revolution standards of
sexual morality, which Shalit refers to as a "return to
modesty", as an antidote to sexual objectification. Some social conservatives have argued that the feminist movement itself has contributed to the problem of the sexual objectification of women by promoting "free" love (i.e. men and women choosing to have non-reproductive sex outside of marriage and for their own pleasure). Others such as
civil libertarians and
sex-positive feminists contest feminist claims about the objectification of women.
Camille Paglia holds that "[t]urning people into sex objects is one of the specialties of our species." In her view, objectification is closely tied to (and may even be identical with) the highest human faculties toward conceptualization and
aesthetics. Feminist author
Wendy Kaminer criticized feminist support for anti-pornography laws, arguing that pornography does not cause sexual violence, and bans on such material infantilize women. She has noted that
radical feminists have often allied themselves with the
Christian right in supporting these laws and denouncing the depiction of sex in popular culture although the two groups strongly disagree on virtually everything else. Her
ACLU colleagues
Nadine Strossen and Nan D. Hunter have made similar criticisms. Strossen has argued that objectification is not in and of itself dehumanizing, and may fulfill women's own fantasies. Psychologist
Nigel Barber argues that men, and to a lesser extent, women, are naturally inclined to focus on the physical attractiveness of the opposite sex (or the same sex in the case of gays and lesbians), and that this has been widely misinterpreted as sexism. Levy discusses this phenomenon in
Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture. Levy followed the camera crew from the
Girls Gone Wild video series, and argues that contemporary America's sexualized culture not only objectifies women, it encourages women to objectify themselves. In today's culture, Levy writes, the idea of a woman participating in a
wet T-shirt contest or being comfortable watching explicit
pornography has become a symbol of feminist strength.
Jordan Peterson has asked why women need to wear make-up or high-heels in the workplace, that a
double standard exists for sexual harassment and women who self-objectify themselves in society. Social media has made a major impact on the self-objectification of women. Through social media, women self-objectify by posting provocative images they know will be objectified by their viewers as a form of seeking validation of posting images that fits the mold of society.
Latina women Latina women face a particular form of sexual objectification based on
stereotypes relating to Latina women. American media often portrays Latina women as being sexually promiscuous and curvaceous, having large breasts and buttocks, being melodramatic, or having a feisty attitude. Keller identifies three main stereotypes that contribute to the objectification of Latinas. (Cantina Girl, Suffering Senorita, and
Vamp). The "Cantina Girl" is characterized as being an alluring sexual presence. The "Suffering Senorita" is the Latina who goes "bad" due to her love of the (usually Anglo) love interest. Lastly, the "Vamp" is seen as beautiful but devious, and a psychological threat for her wit or charm. All three of these categorizations stem from the sexual objectification of Latina women's bodies and identities. Such sexual objectifications hold real-world consequences for Latina women. For instance, the prevalence of negative Latina stereotypes (such as
hypersexualization) has led to a decrease in positive
in-group attitudes among the Latina community.
Black women Black women have been fetishized and objectified throughout history. They may be portrayed as having a more animalistic nature than their non-black counterparts. People who fetishize black women are sometimes pejoratively said to have "
jungle fever". Black women are widely objectified in the media and in pornography, and are scrutinized more closely for doing the same things as their non-black counterparts. They are also stereotyped in the media as having more curvaceous bodies and bigger lips. ==Objectification theory==