Background The gunship
USS Michigan became the first iron-hulled vessel built on the
Great Lakes, upon her launching in 1843, in
Erie, Pennsylvania. By the mid-1840s, Canadian merchants were importing iron vessels
prefabricated in the
United Kingdom. The first iron–hulled merchant vessel built on the lakes,
Merchant, was built in 1862, in
Buffalo, New York. Despite
Merchant clear success proving the potential of iron hulls, ships built from wood remained preferable until the 1880s, due to their lower cost, as well as the abundance of high quality
timber and workers trained in carpentry. Between the early–1870s and the mid-1880s, shipyards around the Great Lakes began to construct iron ships on a relatively large scale. The most notable being the freighter
Onoko, built by the
Globe Iron Works Company, which became the
largest vessel on the lakes upon her launch in 1882. In 1884, the first
steel freighters were built on the Great Lakes. By the 1890s, metal had become a common hull material used on the lakes. The development of the
pneumatic rivet gun and the advancement of
gantry cranes enabled shipyard employees to work at an increased speed, with greater efficiency. This, combined with the rapidly decreasing steel prices, contributed to the rapid increase in the size of
lake freighters in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first freighter was built in 1895, the first freighter arrived on the scene five years later. Throughout the 1880s, the
iron ore trade on the Great Lakes grew significantly, primarily due to the increasing size of the
lake freighters, and the rise in the number of trips they made to the
ore docks of
Lake Superior. As the railways were unable to keep up with the rapid production of iron ore, bulk freighters became integral to the region's iron ore industry. By 1890, 56.95% of the of the iron ore produced by mines in the United States was sourced from the region surrounding Lake Superior. Freighters engaged in the iron ore trade frequently carried coal on
upbound voyages to fuel mining equipment and infrastructure, while hauling ore when
downbound.
Augustus B. Wolvin was a prominent businessman within the Great Lakes shipping industry, based in
Duluth, Minnesota. His first business venture began with a
marine insurance agency, founded in 1889. In 1895, Wolvin became the president and manager of the Zenith Transportation Company, with the freighter
Zenith City marking his first shipbuilding venture that same year. He was appointed general manager of the newly assembled fleet of vessels belonging to the
United States Steel Corporation's subsidiary, the
Pittsburgh Steamship Company, in 1901. Shortly thereafter, Wolvin founded the Provident Steamship Company in Duluth, commissioning four large vessels for his new venture. The contract for two of the vessels was awarded to the
American Ship Building Company's yard in
West Superior, Wisconsin, on 2 July 1902, following the completion of
James H. Hoyt.
Design and construction D. M. Clemson was built by the
Superior Shipbuilding Company in West Superior, as
yard number 510, costing $315,000 (equivalent to $ in ). She was named after Daniel M. Clemson, the president of the Pittsburgh Steamship Company, although her prospective name was erroneously reported by the
Detroit Free Press as
D. K. Clemson. The original date for the launching was reported as 1 June, later revised to 27 June, with local newspapers advertising a substantial christening gala. However, the event experienced delays. Although customary to
launch lake freighters on Saturdays,
D. M. Clemson was launched on a Friday, between 16:00 and 16:30 on 3 July 1903, without a formal christening ceremony, at the behest of Wolvin. Inclement weather resulted in sparse attendance.
D. M. Clemson and her sister ships,
D. G. Kerr and
James H. Reed, were among the largest vessels on the Great Lakes in 1903, with the former being built alongside
D. M. Clemson in West Superior. She was built on the
channel system, a longitudinal
frame style introduced on the Great Lakes in the mid-1890s. It constituted several rows of
flanged steel plates running the entire length of a vessel's bottom, deriving its name from the "channels" between the frames. This method provided vessels with additional strength, as well as preventing damage sustained in groundings from spreading to other areas of the hull, and increasing cargo capacity. In spite of rapid advances in shipbuilding technology, the hold of
D. M. Clemson remained reminiscent of those found on wooden lake freighters. Between 1882 and 1904, the cargo holds of all iron and steel freighters contained stanchions, vertical columns designed to support their decks; and steel angles which were the equivalent of the
knees used on wooden freighters. The stanchions within her hull, which supported her deck, were located apart, at the spaces between
D. M. Clemson 25 hatches, which were in depth. Her hull contained three watertight
bulkheads. The cargo hold was divided into six separate compartments, the first of which was in capacity; the second, third, fourth, and fifth were , while the sixth was . Her overall capacity was listed as . She was flush–decked, meaning she lacked a deckhouse astern, with her crew's accommodations located below decks. The hull of
D. M. Clemson had an
overall length of , a
length between perpendiculars of , as well as a
beam in width. The depth of
D. M. Clemsons hull, was . The measurements of her register tonnage were calculated as 5,531
gross register tons and 3,991
net register tons, respectively. Additionally, she was listed as 17,000
tons burthen. Maritime historian Frederick Stonehouse describes her as the "[r]epresenting the highest state of the shipbuilders' art".
The Duluth News Tribune lauded
D. M. Clemson size, referring to her as a "[m]onster freighter". She was powered by a 90
rpm quadruple expansion steam engine; the cylinders of the engine were , , and in diameter, and had a
stroke of . Steam was provided by two
water-tube boilers in diameter, in length, with a working pressure of . The boilers were each fitted with four furnaces, accounting for a combined
grate surface of , and a total heating surface of . The engine was manufactured by the shipyard in West Superior, while the boilers were supplied by
Babcock & Wilcox of
New York City.
D. M. Clemson machinery enabled her to reach .
Service history D. M. Clemson was the final vessel in the Provident Steamship Company's fleet of four to be completed and enter service, after
James H. Hoyt,
D. G. Kerr, and
James H. Reed, respectively. Her US
official number was 157703, while her port of registry was Duluth. On 13 August 1903,
D. M. Clemson began her maiden voyage for
Lake Erie under the command of Captain Frank Rae, after loading of iron ore at the
Duluth, Missabe and Iron Range Railway's
ore dock in Duluth, beating the previous haulage record set by the freighter
William Edenborn. The cargo gave her a
draught of . She locked down through the
Soo Locks on 16 August, at 12:20, and passed
Detroit, Michigan, on 18 August, at 09:00.
D. M. Clemson arrived in
Conneaut, Ohio, on 20 August. Rae became embroiled in a labour dispute in September, due to his refusal to join the
Masters' & Pilots' Association, and employing his father, another non–union member, as a
mate. His actions resulted in a widespread strike, which saw multiple vessels of the Pittsburgh Steamship Company idling in port. He was relieved of command in October. While attempting to enter Conneaut, on 26 October 1903,
D. M. Clemson ran aground on a mud
bar at the harbour entrance. Contemporary accounts attributed the bar's formation to the removal of the harbour's piers in preparation for their replacement. After a considerable effort, she was removed ten hours after grounding. The bar was
dredged shortly thereafter. Less than a month later, she took on 336,365
bushels of
barley, weighing , at Duluth's
Cargill Commission on 20 November 1903, setting a new record for the largest cargo of grain loaded at a port on Lake Superior. The barley was destined for Buffalo.
D. M. Clemson broke the record for a coal cargo with a load of
bituminous coal, which she discharged at Duluth on 22 June 1904. She broke another record a month later, on 22 July, after loading and of soft coal destined for
Superior, Wisconsin, at the
Hocking dock in
Toledo, Ohio, the largest cargo of that type loaded at the port. On 12 August 1904, she stranded in the
Menominee River, while laden with
anthracite coal. She was freed at night the following day, after of her cargo was removed, receiving no damage from the grounding. During the end of 1905,
D. M. Clemson almost sank. At 02:00 on 2 September, she left Duluth, laden with iron ore bound for
South Chicago, Illinois. As she proceeded across Lake Superior, weather conditions began to deteriorate.
D. M. Clemson eventually encountered the full force of the storm, which
The Cleveland Leader described as "unsurpassed". Waves boarded her decks, smashing in two of the hatch covers. The water which entered her hold caused her cargo to shift. Captain Samuel R. Chamberlain decided to turn her around, arriving in
Two Harbors, Minnesota, several hours later. She had a
list to
starboard, with little
freeboard. In addition to the broken hatches, she also lost several railings, and sustained other damage. She was placed in
dry dock in Superior, in mid–September 1905, to repair damage to her bottom caused by ice earlier that year. Repairs were not deemed to be of the utmost importance, leading to their delay. Thirteen of her plates were replaced. On the night of 26 September,
D. M. Clemson ran aground opposite the Minnesota ore docks in the
Buffalo River due to low water levels, while underway to unload her cargo of iron ore. She was drawing of water at the time. Although the tug
Delta succeeded in freeing her, she grounded again while turning around. The wrecking tug
Saginaw was dispatched to assist, but failed to free her. On the morning of 27 September, increased water levels allowed her to float free, and subsequently unload her cargo at the ore dock. Upbound with coal on 13 April 1906,
D. M. Clemson ran aground on
Bar Point, on Lake Erie, remaining there for several hours. She was eventually freed and allowed to continue her journey, having sustained no visible damage. At 07:00 on 20 June 1907, while downbound and laden with iron ore,
D. M. Clemson collided with the upbound
whaleback James B. Neilson in heavy fog off
Middle Island on
Lake Huron.
D. M. Clemson was struck on her
port side, immediately forward of her coal bunkers. Despite receiving considerable damage, she proceeded on her way, her captain reporting the collision at
Port Huron, Michigan, at 22:15 later that day. On the night of 20 October 1908,
D. M. Clemson was bound from Conneaut, for
Ashtabula, Ohio, to load coal. While attempting to enter the latter port, a strong current drove her against the pier of the
Ashtabula Harbor Light, damaging ten hull plates above the turn of her
bilge, as well as the first water tank on her starboard side. Her impact with the pier knocked it out of line. As the damage sustained was above the waterline,
D. M. Clemson received temporary repairs in Astabula, before leaving on a voyage for Lake Superior. On October 24, while upbound with coal, she ran aground on
Point Pelee, due to smoke from a forest fires obscuring visibility. She was freed later that day, continuing her voyage, receiving no noticeable damage. After loading iron ore consigned to Ashtabula, in Duluth, on 20 November 1908,
D. M. Clemson encountered a fierce storm on Lake Superior. A
following sea broke over her stern, flooding the crew's aft quarters, smashing the engine room skylights, and buckling cabin doors. Chamberlain altered course to avoid flooding
D. M. Clemson engine. The following morning, green seas, combined with a sharp drop in temperature resulted in a thick layer of ice coating
D. M. Clemson decks. She struggled against the storm for two days, until it dissipated, allowing her to continue her journey to the Soo Locks. Despite the severity of the storm, she sustained no obvious structural damage. Her crew repaired the damaged fittings. Albeit delayed, she arrived in Ashtabula on 24 November, and unloaded her cargo.
Final voyage On the night of 27 November,
D. M. Clemson departed Ashtabula for
Lorain, Ohio, arriving at the latter that day. As two deckhands had quit their positions upon arriving in Lorain, two local men were hurriedly hired as replacements.
D. M. Clemson departed Lorain, on 28 November, with a cargo of coal destined for Duluth, where she was scheduled to enter
layup upon the completion of her voyage. Chamberlain, who was scheduled to retire at the end of the shipping season, was in command.
D. M. Clemson passed Detroit, at 16:45 that same day. She locked up into Lake Superior on
Canadian side of the Soo Locks at 09:30 on 30 November, and was scheduled to arrive in Duluth later that night. She left the locks in the company of the freighter
J. J. H. Brown, and sailed northwest across
Whitefish Bay. The two vessels parted ways in the vicinity of
Whitefish Point, with Chamberlain electing to take the south shore route to Duluth, which required passage through the
Portage Canal.
J. J. H. Brown altered course to the north, a route which offered better protection against heavy weather. Shortly thereafter, a powerful snow storm with winds swept Lake Superior. Captain Frank D. Chamberlain of
J. J. H. Brown, whose vessel was struck by the storm approximately after leaving
D. M. Clemson, described the storm to
The Duluth News Tribune. It was the worst
gale I ever went into. Every
swell would seem ready to swamp us. Time after time the swells would break completely over the boat. Tuesday I had to shut down my engines and we drifted for 12 hours. After the gale blew itself out there was heavy snowfall and it was impossible to see any distance ahead. An unconfirmed sighting of
D. M. Clemson was reported by the captain of the
Algoma Central Steamship Company freighter
Paliki, who claimed to have spotted her in heavy snow, west of Whitefish Point. This sighting would have been the final time she was seen afloat.
Paliki captain estimated that
D. M. Clemson would have passed
Vermilion Point three to four hours after their purported encounter, around the time the snowfall intensified dramatically.
Aftermath The crew of the
turret deck ship Turret Court and the package freighter
Wasaga reported sighting a pilothouse and several hatch covers floating off
Crisp Point on 4 December. Several other vessels encountered floating wreckage in the vicinity of Crisp Point that same day, including the
canaller Algonquin,
lumber hooker C. F. Curtis, and freighter
Thomas Barlum, the latter of which reported passing through a field of
mahogany debris. The crew of the freighter
J. H. Bartow also reported spotting several floating
life jackets. Initially, the debris was linked to the wooden freighter
Tampa, which had been reported overdue in
Fort William, Ontario. The hatch covers discovered were painted red, matching those of
Tampa. Additionally, she was fitted with mahogany furnishings, corresponding to the wreckage discovered by
Thomas Barlum. Downbound vessels were questioned in an effort to identify the wreckage. However,
Tampa arrived in Fort William, at 14:30 on 5 December, without any apparent damage, after sheltering behind the
Keweenaw Peninsula. Despite growing concern among mariners, search parties only arrived on the scene several days after
D. M. Clemson last sighting. Wolvin maintained her safety, reporting her to be in shelter behind
Grand Island. This was disproved once the freighter
D. O. Mills was identified as the vessel in the lee of Grand Island. That same day, the tugs
Sabine and
Schenck were dispatched from the Soo Locks.
Schenck searched the area around Whitefish Point, while
Sabine travelled along the south shore to
Grand Marais, Michigan, then to
Michipicoten Island, before returning to the Soo. The tugs
James Whalen and
H. F. Bowman patrolled the Canadian shore between
Thunder Bay and Michipicoten Island. The tug
Harrison left Duluth, scouting the area between
Isle Royale, the Keweenaw Peninsula, and
Stannard Rock. With the exception of
Schenck, which recovered two hatch covers, the search parties found nothing. On 6 December,
life savers recovered 23 hatch covers on the beach near the
Two Hearted River. On 7 December, the freighter
Dundee passed through a floating debris field, identified by her captain as coming from
D. M. Clemson. By 8 December, 30 hatch covers had been recovered between Crisp Point and Vermilion Point. Later that day, the freighter
William H. Gratwick, towing the barge
No. 86, reported sighting several pieces of floating wreckage, which appeared to be hatch covers. By 9 December, the entire shoreline between Grand Marais, and Whitefish Point had become littered with debris. That day, parts of
D. M. Clemson cabin were discovered ashore near Grand Marais. Later on 9 December, at 22:30, the freighter
Frank T. Heffelfinger returned to Duluth after patrolling the lake around
Caribou Island, as well as areas around Michipicoten Island and
Isle Royale, without finding any trace of
D. M. Clemson.
D. M. Clemson loss was substantiated on 10 December, when a search party discovered a cork life jacket and a water barrel in the vicinity of Crisp Point, both stencilled with her name. Joseph S. Hayes, the superintendent of the Provident Steamship Company, confirmed the identity of the wreckage. He had arrived in Grand Marais, two days earlier, to organise the search parties.
Frederick B. Wells, another Wolvin–owned freighter, recovered two hatch further covers on 12 December. The hatches of
Frederick B. Wells and
D. M. Clemson were identical in size, further verifying the latter as the source of the wreckage. Other pieces of wreckage, including a red
pail rack, were recovered. One piece of wreckage bore signs of an explosion. The first body of
D. M. Clemson complement of 24 was discovered by a member of the life saving service on the shores of Crisp Point. Although the life saver attempted to recover the body, the rope attached to the life jacket snapped, leading to the body sinking into the lake. By 17 December, one body had been recovered by life savers at Crisp Point. It was identified as Second Mate Charles Woods of
Marine City, Michigan. Reports of two further bodies in the
surf proved false. On 29 December, a body recovered earlier at Crisp Point was identified as watchman Simon Dunn of
Dublin, Ireland. The sinking of
D. M. Clemson was the worst financial loss on the Great Lakes in 1908, constituting nearly half the value of the year's total property loss. She was valued at $300,000 ($ in ), while her cargo was worth $12,000 ($ in ). Both were insured. She was additionally the only foundering on the Great Lakes that year. A badly decomposed body, assumed by contemporary reports to be from
D. M. Clemson, was recovered on the southeast side of
Ile Parisienne in May 1909. On 21 May, that year, the crew of the steamer
Caribou recovered part of an
oar bearing
D. M. Clemson name on its blade, in
Batchawana Bay. They also witnessed wreckage consisting of a door and two oil barrels ashore in the bay, which they assumed originated from
D. M. Clemson. The detached pilothouse drifted ashore west of Whitefish Point, the plate bearing
D. M. Clemson name still attached. It was salvaged, and remained on the property of a local man until the 1930s.
Theories The definitive cause of
D. M. Clemson sinking remains a mystery and has been subject to much speculation, becoming one of the most widely–discussed mysteries of Lake Superior. A report by the
Detroit Free Press on 9 December 1908, highlighted a possible cause of her loss, speculating that waves had loosened her hatch covers, causing water to enter the hold. A piece by published by
The Duluth News Tribune two days later claims she presumably sank shortly after entering the storm, and proposes her owners' theory that she was lost as a result of a mechanical failure, related to either her engine or rudder. The possibility of
D. M. Clemson breaking two was also hypothesised. Dr. Julius F. Wolff Jr., Professor for Political Science at the
University of Minnesota Duluth covered the loss of
D. M. Clemson in a 1972 issue of
Inland Seas. He attributes her loss to a number of possible factors: she may have fallen into the trough between waves and capsized, the temporary repairs to her hull may have failed, her hatch covers possibly blew off, she suffered a boiler explosion, or the grounding at Point Pelee potentially damaged her hull enough for her to break in half under the strain of the storm. In his 1984 book
Went Missing, maritime historian Frederick Stonehouse theorises
D. M. Clemson likely sank as a result of structural damage incurred during her collision with the lighthouse pier in Ashtabula, possibly with her grounding on Point Pelee acting as a contributing factor, leading her to break in two and sink rapidly. He also posits undetected damage sustained during the storm on her penultimate voyage may have weakened her hull, as well as the temporary repairs, making her particularly vulnerable in a storm. Historian James Donahue, writing for
The Times Herald in 1989, ascribes her loss to either the failure of her hatch covers, or catastrophic structural failure, namely breaking in two. He speculates the rush of air caused by the rapid sinking blew the hatch covers free, and attributes the lack of bodies recovered in the aftermath to a sudden and rapid sinking, trapping most of the crew below decks. In November 1911,
D. M. Clemson sister ship,
D. G. Kerr, almost sank in a storm on Lake Superior. She encountered winds and large waves, and gradually began to accumulate large quantities of ice on her decks. Eventually, the weight of the ice snapped the whistle and its steam pipe, leading to the rapid escape of steam from
D. G. Kerr machinery. Although her crew were able to repair the steam pipe and alleviate the steam leak, her captain reported the extent of the steam loss as almost significant enough to render her engine inoperable. In an article published in
Inland Seas in 2000, historian Al Miller speculates that as
D. G. Kerr and
D. M. Clemson were identical in design, the latter conceivably fell victim to a similar incident. ==Wreck==