Benefits Mental health Social support profile is associated with increased psychological well-being in the workplace and in response to important life events. There has been an ample amount of evidence showing that social support aids in lowering problems related to one's mental health. As reported by Cutrona, Russell, and Rose, in the elderly population that was in their studies, their results showed that elderly individuals who had relationships where their self-esteem was elevated were less likely to have a decline in their health. In stressful times, social support helps people reduce psychological distress (e.g.,
anxiety or
depression). Social support has been found to promote psychological adjustment in conditions with
chronic high stress like
HIV,
rheumatoid arthritis,
cancer,
stroke, and
coronary artery disease. Whereas a lack of social support has been associated with a risk for an individual's mental health. This study also shows that the social support acts as a buffer to protect individuals from different aspects in regards to their mental and physical health, such as helping against certain life stressors. Additionally, social support has been associated with various acute and chronic pain variables (for more information, see
Chronic pain). People with low social support report more sub-clinical symptoms of
depression and
anxiety than do people with high social support. In addition, people with low social support have higher rates of
major mental disorder than those with high support. These include
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
panic disorder,
social phobia, major depressive disorder,
dysthymic disorder, and
eating disorders. Among people with
schizophrenia, those with low social support have more symptoms of the disorder. In addition, people with low support have more
suicidal ideation, and more
alcohol and (illicit and prescription) drug problems. Similar results have been found among children. Religious coping has especially been shown to correlate positively with positive psychological adjustment to stressors with enhancement of faith-based social support hypothesized as the likely mechanism of effect. However, more recent research reveals the role of religiosity/spirituality in enhancing social support may be overstated and in fact disappears when the personality traits of "agreeableness" and "conscientiousness" are also included as predictors. In a 2013 study, Akey et al. did a qualitative study of 34 men and women diagnosed with an eating disorder and used the
Health Belief Model (HBM) to explain the reasons for which they forgo
seeking social support. Many people with eating disorders have a low perceived susceptibility, which can be explained as a sense of denial about their illness. Their perceived severity of the illness is affected by those to whom they compare themselves to, often resulting in people believing their illness is not severe enough to seek support. Due to poor past experiences or educated speculation, the perception of benefits for seeking social support is relatively low. The number of perceived barriers towards seeking social support often prevents people with eating disorders from getting the support they need to better cope with their illness. Such barriers include fear of
social stigma, financial resources, and availability and quality of support.
Self-efficacy may also explain why people with eating disorders do not seek social support, because they may not know how to properly express their need for help. This research has helped to create a better understanding of why individuals with eating disorders do not seek social support, and may lead to increased efforts to make such support more available. Eating disorders are classified as mental illnesses but can also have physical health repercussions. Creating a strong social support system for those affected by eating disorders may help such individuals to have a higher quality of both mental and physical health. Various studies have been performed examining the effects of social support on psychological distress. Interest in the implications of social support were triggered by a series of articles published in the mid-1970s, each reviewing literature examining the association between psychiatric disorders and factors such as change in marital status,
geographic mobility, and social disintegration. Researchers realized that the theme present in each of these situations is the absence of adequate social support and the disruption of social networks. This observed relationship sparked numerous studies concerning the effects of social support on mental health. One particular study documented the effects of social support as a coping strategy on psychological distress in response to stressful work and life events among police officers. Talking things over among coworkers was the most frequent form of coping utilized while on duty, whereas most police officers kept issues to themselves while off duty. The study found that the social support between co-workers significantly buffered the relationship between work-related events and distress. Other studies have examined the social support systems of single mothers. One study by D'Ercole demonstrated that the effects of social support vary in both form and function and will have drastically different effects depending upon the individual. The study found that supportive relationships with
friends and co-workers, rather than task-related support from family, was positively related to the mother's psychological well-being. D'Ercole hypothesizes that friends of a single parent offer a chance to socialize, match experiences, and be part of a network of peers. These types of exchanges may be more spontaneous and less obligatory than those between relatives. Additionally, co-workers can provide a community away from domestic life, relief from family demands, a source of recognition, and feelings of competence. D'Ercole also found an interesting statistical interaction whereby social support from co-workers decreased the experience of stress only in lower income individuals. The author hypothesizes that single women who earn more money are more likely to hold more demanding jobs which require more formal and less dependent relationships. Additionally, those women who earn higher incomes are more likely to be in positions of power, where relationships are more competitive than supportive. Many studies have been dedicated specifically to understanding the effects of social support in individuals with (PTSD). In a study by Haden et al., when victims of severe trauma perceived high levels of social support and engaged in interpersonal coping styles, they were less likely to develop severe PTSD when compared to those who perceived lower levels of social support. These results suggest that high levels of social support alleviate the strong positive association between level of injury and severity of PTSD, and thus serves as a powerful protective factor. In general, data shows that the support of family and
friends has a positive influence on an individual's ability to cope with trauma. In fact, a meta-analysis by Brewin et al. found that social support was the strongest predictor, accounting for 40%, of variance in PTSD severity. However, perceived social support may be directly affected by the severity of the trauma. In some cases, support decreases with increases in trauma severity. College students have also been the target of various studies on the effects of social support on coping. Reports between 1990 and 2003 showed college stresses were increasing in severity. Studies have also shown that college students' perceptions of social support have shifted from viewing support as stable to viewing them as variable and fluctuating. In the face of such mounting stress, students naturally
seek support from family and friends in order to alleviate psychological distress. A study by Chao found a significant two-way correlation between perceived stress and social support, as well as a significant three-way correlation between perceived stress, social support, and dysfunctional coping. The results indicated that high levels of dysfunctional coping deteriorated the association between stress and well-being at both high and low levels of social support, suggesting that dysfunctional coping can deteriorate the positive buffering action of social support on well-being. Students who reported social support were found more likely to engage in less healthy activities, including sedentary behavior, drug and alcohol use, and too much or too little sleep. Lack of social support in college students is also strongly related to life dissatisfaction and suicidal behavior.
Physical health Social support has a clearly demonstrated link to physical health outcomes in individuals, with numerous ties to physical health including
mortality. People with low social support are at a much higher risk of death from a variety of diseases (e.g., cancer or cardiovascular disease). Individuals with lower levels of social support have: more
cardiovascular disease, more complications during
pregnancy, and more functional disability and pain associated with rheumatoid arthritis, among many other findings. Conversely, higher rates of social support have been associated with numerous positive outcomes, including faster recovery from coronary artery surgery, less susceptibility to
herpes attacks, a lowered likelihood to show age-related cognitive decline, and better
diabetes control. People with higher social support are also less likely to develop
colds and are able to recover faster if they are ill from a cold. There is sufficient evidence linking cardiovascular, neuroendocrine, and immune system function with higher levels of social support. Research focuses on breast cancers, but in more serious cancers factors such as severity and spread are difficult to measure in the context of impacts of social support. There are serious ethical concerns involved with controlling too many factors of social support in individuals, leading to an interesting crossroads in the research. All supportive services from
supported employment to
supported housing,
family support,
educational support, and
supported living are based upon the relationship between "informal and formal" supports, and "paid and unpaid caregivers". Inclusion studies, based upon affiliation and
friendship, or the conversely, have a similar theoretical basis as do "person-centered support" strategies. Social support theories are often found in "real life" in cultural, music and arts communities, and as might be expected within religious communities. Social support is integral in theories of aging, and the "social care systems" have often been challenged (e.g., creativity throughout the lifespan, extra retirement hours). Ed Skarnulis' (state director) adage, "Support, don't supplant the family" applies to other forms of social support networks. Although there are many benefits to social support, it is not always beneficial. It has been proposed that in order for social support to be beneficial, the social support desired by the individual has to match the support given to him or her; this is known as the matching hypothesis. Psychological stress may increase if a different type of support is provided than what the recipient wishes to receive (e.g., informational is given when emotional support is sought). Other costs have been associated with social support. For example, received support has not been linked consistently to either physical or mental health; It is important when discussing social support to always consider the possibility that the social support system is actually an antagonistic influence on an individual. dominates social support research and is designed to explain the buffering hypothesis described above. According to this theory, social support protects people from the bad health effects of stressful events (i.e., stress buffering) by influencing how people think about and
cope with the events. An example in 2018 are the effects of school shootings on the well-being and future of children and children's health. According to stress and coping theory, events are stressful insofar as people have negative thoughts about the event (
appraisal) and cope ineffectively. Coping consists of deliberate, conscious actions such as problem solving or relaxation. As applied to social support, stress and coping theory suggests that social support promotes
adaptive appraisal and coping. and that received support is typically not linked to better health outcomes. RRT was proposed in order to explain perceived support's main effects on mental health which cannot be explained by the stress and coping theory. Life-span theory
Biological pathways Many studies have tried to identify
biopsychosocial pathways for the link between social support and health. Social support has been found to positively impact the
immune,
neuroendocrine, and
cardiovascular systems. Although these systems are listed separately here, evidence has shown that these systems can interact and affect each other. For example, being more socially integrated is correlated with lower levels of inflammation (as measured by
C-reactive protein, a marker of inflammation), and people with more social support have a lower susceptibility to the common cold.
Neuroimaging work has found that social support decreases activation of regions in the brain associated with social distress, and that this diminished activity was also related to lowered cortisol levels. • Cardiovascular system: Social support has been found to lower cardiovascular reactivity to stressors. which are known to benefit the cardiovascular system. Though many benefits have been found, not all research indicates positive effects of social support on these systems. Studies have generally found beneficial effects for social support group interventions for various conditions, including Internet support groups. These groups may be termed "self help" groups in nation-states, may be offered by non-profit organizations, and in 2018, may be paid for as part of governmental reimbursement schemes. According to Drebing, previous studies have shown that those going to support groups later show enhanced social support... in regard to groups such as
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and
Narcotics Anonymous (NA), were shown to have a positive correlation with participation in their subsequent groups and abstaining from their addiction. Because correlation does not equal causation, going to those meeting does not cause one to abstain from divulging back into old habits rather that this been shown to be helpful in establishing sobriety. While many support groups are held where the discussions can be face to face there has been evidence that shows online support offers the same amount of benefits. Coulson found that through discussion forums several benefits can be added such as being able to cope with things and having an overall sense of well-being.''''
Providing support There are both costs and benefits to providing support to others. Providing
long-term care or support for someone else is a chronic stressor that has been associated with anxiety, depression, alterations in the immune system, and increased mortality. Thus, family caregivers and "university personnel" alike have advocated for both respite or relief, and higher payments related to ongoing, long-term care giving. However, providing support has also been associated with health benefits. In fact, providing instrumental support to
friends, relatives, and neighbors, or emotional support to spouses has been linked to a significant decrease in the risk for mortality. Researchers found that within couples where one has been diagnosed with breast cancer, not only does the spouse with the illness benefit from the provision and receipt of support but so does the spouse with no illness. It was found that the relationship well being was the area that benefited for the spouses of those with breast cancer Also, a recent neuroimaging study found that giving support to a significant other during a distressful experience increased activation in
reward areas of the brain.
Social defense system In 1959
Isabel Menzies Lyth identified that threat to a person's identity in a group where they share similar characteristics develops a defense system inside the group which stems from emotions experienced by members of the group, which are difficult to articulate, cope with and finds solutions to. Together with an external pressure on efficiency, a collusive and injunctive system develops that is resistant to change, supports their activities and prohibit others from performing their major tasks. ==Gender and culture==