History of fisheries in the Philippines

What is now the Philippines has a long history of coastal fishing communities, with folklore referencing relationships with fish and fishing. In addition to finfish and invertebrates, other marine species traditionally hunted include sea turtles, dugong, and cetaceans. Control of coastal resources was likely exercised by barangay chiefs. Coastal communities likely traded their fisheries products for goods such as rice and cotton from inland communities. The first farmed fish is thought to be milkfish (locally called bangus), whose fry was collected from tidal waters and raised in brackish ponds. The water of these ponds was supplied by the tides, with food either coming with the tide or caught from the wild. The practice eventually evolved into a series of ponds allowed the fish to be moved as they grew larger. The original technique likely came from the East Javan mainland or its offshore island of Madura prior to the Spanish arrival to the Philippines. The traditional practice persisted in Mactan, Cebu, until 1921. During Spanish rule the Spanish Law of Waters was implemented via the royal decree of Isabella II on August 8, 1866. This law gave control of all coastal resources to the Manila authorities, from whom they could be leased for use. However, for most resources, there was no management, and so exploitation was effectively unrestricted. Chinese immigration during this period introduced new fishing equipment such as Salambáw nets that allowed for larger catches to supply growing urban populations. The Spanish Law of Waters still has some provisions in force to this day, as laid out by the 1912 Irrigation Act, At the end of the 19th century, sapyaw (or sapiao) nets began to spread, and other new net types followed. ==Early 20th century==

A growing population during American rule saw demand for fish increase. Beam trawling was introduced by Japanese fishermen in the early 20th century, as well as muro-ami nets. in 1933 The Fisheries Act of 1932 (Act 4003) was enacted on December 5, 1932. within which only municipal governments could create fish ponds and corrals, catch milkfish fry, and license ships smaller than 3 tons. Larger ships were licensed by the Secretary of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Aside from municipal fisheries, it created the concept of national fisheries, applying to both inland fisheries and specific marine fisheries, and the concept of reserve fisheries, which would be any fisheries designated by Presidential decree to be as such. Due to the reliance on wild catch to support traditional milkfish ponds, shrimp fry often also ended up in these ponds. When this happened, such shrimp were also harvested from milkfish ponds. Species known to have been farmed as a secondary product include jumbo tiger shrimp, Indian prawns, and Penaeus merguiensis. Metapenaeus ensis may also have been farmed. Fish ponds were also occasionally contaminated with seaweed, such as sea lettuce. Seaweed was already harvested wild for eating, and gained increasing use as fish food. The first national park, the Hundred Islands National Park, was established in 1940 and included marine areas. ==Technological development and commercial expansion==

After World War II, the Philippines led the modernization of Southeast Asian fisheries. At this time, municipal fisheries were 150% larger than commercial ones. Motor boats began to spread, increasing range and mobility. Accidental Caulerpa lentillifera contamination, possibly due to use as fish food, shifted to deliberate cultivation in Mactan during the early 1950s to meet local demand, becoming the first commercially farmed seaweed species. Some fisheries in Manila Bay were likely already close to being overfished during the 1950s. The technological development of the industry benefited existing capital holders, and commercial production soon began to outstrip the previously dominant municipal fisheries. Mussel farming began with a Perna viridis enclosure in Binakayan, Cavite, established by the Bureau of Fisheries in 1955 in an existing oyster farm. This saw mussels grown on bamboo poles, an attempt to shift the view of oyster farmers from treating mussels as a pest to treating them as another commodity. Production remained around Manila Bay until the 1970s, due to the limited natural range of Perna viridis. Some stock was imported from Thailand in the 1960s, to unknown impact. (The widespread Modiolus modulaides is unsuitable for aquaculture.) Perna viridis eventually spread to other areas, such as Sapian Bay and Batan Bay in Panay and Maqueda Bay Samar, possibly as biofouling pollution in bilge water. In 1976, attempts began in Sapian Bay to farm mussels on nylon ropes webbed across bamboo on the seafloor. Other attempts saw ropes suspended from rafts, although neither method became popular. A number of provinces banned trawling at various points starting from 1954, until May 1983 when Letter of Instruction 1328 banned trawling within of the shore or in water shallower than 7 fathoms nationwide. Demersal catches did not increase after 1976. Distribution technology, by roads and by sea, also improved during this time, providing larger markets for catches. Capture fisheries grew steadily until the mid-1970s, and started growing again in the mid-1980s until the 1990s. While municipal catches decreased during parts of this period, increasing commercial catches compensated for this. ==Under martial law==

Shortly after the declaration of martial law in 1972 under President Ferdinand Marcos, Presidential Decree 43 (the Fishery Industry Development Decree) was issued on November 9, 1972, promoting further development of the industry and creating a Fisheries Industry Development Council. becoming the new basis for Philippine fisheries law upon its issuance on May 16, 1975. In the 1960s Indonesian Eucheuma exports from Indonesia became unreliable. Another experimental seaweed farm was established in Calatagan, where Kappaphycus alvarezii was discovered. By 1989 seaweed exports reached 31,000 tons, of which 60% was Eucheuma. Bamboo fish cages were first introduced in 1965 to Laguna de Bay to experiment with farming various fish species, although their use remained limited. In the 1970s, bamboo and net milkfish pens were established in the freshwater Laguna de Bay, While Nile tilapia did not do as well in brackish water as Mozambique tilapia, Nile tilapia were also more popular with consumers. In the same period, it became possible to farm single-gender ponds so no breeding occurred. Experiments found that ponds could be monosexed through the use of androgens, and later ponds could be bred from genetically modified males with YY chromosomes. These two changes allowed freshwater tilapia farming to expand from a small-scale seasonal enterprise into commercial production. Monosex hybrids of different species have been tested, but did not become farmed commercially. These were generally Oreochromis aureus or Oreochromis urolepis hornorum males bred with Mozambique or Nile tilapia females. These hybrids have also been experimented with for saline tolerance. By the mid-1980s, tilapia were the second most farmed fish after milkfish. As sugar exports declined, sugar fields were often converted into aquaculture farms. Jumbo tiger shrimp became the largest marine export of the Philippines, reaching a high of US$300 million in exports in 1992. The expansion was slowed by the death of Japanese emperor Hirohito in 1989, which reduced demand. Meanwhile, intensive farming had led to antibiotic-resistant diseases such as luminous vibriosis spreading within Negros Occidental. While there was a substantial decline in production due to these events, shrimp farming continued outside of Negros. The 1980s also saw a rise in fish cage use in Laguna de Bay, usually to farm tilapia more cheaply than using a fish pen. From producing 7,187 million tons in 1985, freshwater fish cages produced 35,362 million tons in 1993. That year saw marine fish cage use become large enough to be recorded, and combined production reached 43,000 million tons in 1997. By 1995, cage use had spread to Taal Lake, where 3,140 fish cages were registered under 1,138 operators. As Taal Lake is deeper than Laguna de bay, most of its fish cages are floating rather than fixed. By 1998, there were 640 fish cage farms registered with LLDA, ranging from to the legal maximum of (the average size was ). The most common individual cage size was by , although local governments around Laguna de Bay sought to standardize them at by . In 1974 the FAO brought two experimental purse seine vessels to the Philippines, which discovered the value of payao for tuna fishing. The large-scale adoption of payao by tuna fisherfolk in 1975 led to a large expansion of the industry, as well as an increase in small pelagic catch. The decade also saw crab fisheries expand beyond artisanal tools, leading to a rapid reduction in crab populations due to trawling. In 1978, Presidential Decree 1599 established the country's exclusive economic zone, expanding the potential fisheries under Philippine jurisdiction. Executive Order 656 of 1981 created the National Committee on Illegal Entrants, whose mandate included tackling foreign fishing in Philippine waters. During the 1970s, incomes among fisherfolk declined, and there was not enough data to set up effective management strategies. The 1970s also saw the first coastal resource management programs aimed at creating sustainability in fisheries. The Sumilon Marine Reserve was set up in 1974, and Presidential Proclamation 1801 established the broader concept of marine reserves in 1978. Puerto Galera became a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1977, the Apo Island Marine Reserve was set up in 1985, and Tubbataha Reef became a protected area in 1988 before becoming part of a Biosphere Reserve in 1990 and a World Heritage Site in 1993. Fish cage use in Laguna de Bay rose during the 1980s, usually to farm tilapia. From producing 7,187 million tons in 1985, freshwater fish cages produced 35,362 million tons in 1993. That year saw marine fish cage use become large enough to be recorded, and combined production reached 43,000 million tons in 1997. Artificial reefs, already used as fish aggregating devices since the 1950s, began to be officially encouraged as conservation and anti-trawling devices in the 1980s. When placed in municipal waters, they often attracted illegal commercial fishing. Their overall impact was mixed, sometimes damaging. Captive giant clam breeding began in 1985, and research into breeding other vulnerable sessile invertebrates followed. Ornamental shell exports peaked in 1988, before declining significantly. From 1981 to 1997, total seaweed production increased from 83,000 million tons to 627,105 million tons. Of the 12 provinces in which seaweed was farmed in 1987, Tawi-Tawi was the largest with an estimated of seaweed farms. In 1986, only 199 farms were officially licensed in Tawi-Tawi, possibly only one-fifth of the total number. From 1992 to 1997, seaweed farming expanded by 17% annually, and by 1997 farms were present in 30 provinces and cities. Many seaweed farms are small-scale and farmer-owned. Seaweed farming was often carried out alongside other methods of obtaining income, such as fishing. ==Towards sustainable management==

The newly created 1987 constitution included a specific reference to the "preferential use" of fishing resources by "subsistence fishermen". In 1986, President Corazon Aquino re-included fish ponds in the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program through executive order, which was reinforced through law in 1988. This measure was intended to redistribute fish ponds if their size exceeded . A BFAR order to increase the cost of FLA land leases from PhP 50.00 per to PhP 1000.00 was blocked by the Couth of Appeals following legal action by the Chamber of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. Lobbying against land reform, supported by BFAR, resulted in fish ponds once again being exempted in 1995. This was justified as a measure to protect the shrimp farming industry, although the industry declined nonetheless. In 1988, aquaculture produced 26.4% of fisheries output. now explicitly able to regulate without national government approval. although in a way that created legal uncertainty around commercial fishing licensing and activities. The civilian coast guard was formed in 1997, and local governments gained some control over local police in 1998. Continued population growth led to increasing demand for seafood. Combined with decreasing fish catch, average consumption of seafood fell during the 1990s. In the mid-1990s, intensive shrimp farming methods were applied to milkfish when the rapid shift to industrial shrimp ponds led to market oversaturation and the spread of disease. Artificial feeding of milkfish became more common. Supplemental milkfish feed was often provided by companies that had previously produced shrimp feed, and so commercially produced feed began to replace the use of waste rice material. Overall marine landings were relatively flat from 1991 to 1995. Aquaculture produced 957,546 million tons, which was 34.6% of overall fisheries output and worth PhP 27,400 million. The Aquaculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997 (RA 8435) was issued as an attempt to improve fisheries financing. The use of artificial reefs was banned in 1997, before being reallowed in 2001 under new guidelines. This is despite aquaculture production levelling off and slightly declining starting around 2010. In 2010, around 1 million were employed in fisheries and half a million in aquaculture. As of 2012, around 1,614,000 people were employed in municipal fisheries, 16,500 in commercial fisheries, and 226,000 in aquaculture. Of the 3.1 million tons of fish produced, 790,900 (25.4%) came from aquaculture. In addition, 1.8 million tonnes of seaweed was produced. Exports reached $1.2 billion in 2013, in large part due to tuna and shrimp exports. Seafood products worth $264 million were imported. The closure of an area of international waters in the Pacific Ocean known as high seas pocket 1, located between Indonesia, Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia, and Papua New Guinea, caused some damage to the Philippine tuna industry. The Philippines lobbied for its reopening, which occurred in 2012 when 36 vessels were granted access. Enforcement of the Visayan Sea closed season became strict in 2012, following a 24% decline in catch from 2010 to 2011. A closed season was established near the Zamboanga Peninsula (the East Sulu Sea, Basilan Strait, and Sibuguey Bay) in 2011 through joint Administrative Order No. 1 of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of the Interior and Local Government. The closure in Zamboanga has seen catches increase, however there is so far no evidence for the impact of the closure in the Visayan Sea. Sardine conservation from December 1 to March 1 was reaffirmed in BFAR Administrative Circular 255 in 2014. Also in 2014, joint DA-DILG Administrative Order 2 established a June 1 to August 31 closed season in the Davao Gulf to protect small pelagic species. In 2015, a closed season was implemented to product roundscad around the Calamian Islands from November 1 to January 31 through joint DA-DILG Administrative Order 1. Municipal fisheries and aquaculture combined produced 73% of all catch from 2011 to 2020. From 2012 to 2021, aquaculture was far more productive than municipal fisheries, whose productivity was in turn slightly higher than that of commercial fisheries. During that same period, the overall volume of commodities produced from municipal fisheries decreased from 1.26 million metric tons to 1.13 million metric tons. However, the value of produced commodities increased from PhP 80.90 billion to PhP 127.63 billion. The production of seaweed through aquaculture grew from 707.0 thousand tonnes in 2000 to around 1,500 thousand tonnes annually in the years since then. Fisheries Management Areas BFAR issued Fisheries Administrative Order 263 (FAO 263) in 2019, dividing Philippine waters into 12 Fisheries Management Areas taking into account geography and fish stock distribution. Under this system, each area is expected to have its own management body and scientific advisory group, which will prepare a Fisheries Management Area Plan that is responsive to the needs of that fishing management area. Following the annexation of Benham Rise, it was announced this territory would become a special fisheries management area. In addition to creating more tailored sustainability plans, the FMAs are intended to improve governance and the enforcement of fishery laws and regulations. Implementation of the new FMAs lagged behind the laws. By mid-2021, 11 FMAs had been established, although only 6 of the originally 12 FMAs had established scientific advisory groups, and funding and reporting structures were still undefined. Some of these delays were caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines. The pandemic with its reduction in enforcement activities also saw an increase in IUU fishing in municipal waters. BFAR and USAID released tools to allow local communities to estimate the prevalence of IUU fishing in their local waters. By 2022, all 12 management boards had been organized, and 11 scientific advisory groups had been set up. In 2020, fisheries made up 1.52% of GDP. There was US$1.00 billion in fisheries-related exports and US$592.36 million in imports. One-fifth of exports went to the United States, with other large markets being Japan, Germany, China, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, South Korea, and Vietnam. Two thirds of exports by both volume and value are tuna, seaweed, shrimp, and prawns. Canned tuna makes up the majority of tuna exports, while carrageenan makes up 94% of seaweed exports. Shrimp exports are 90% frozen produce, mostly going to Japan, the United States, and South Korea. Other exports include crab, octopus, grouper, cuttlefish, squid, ornamental fish, roundscad, and sea cucumber. Of fishery-related imports, over 40% of imports were tuna, with other imports including mackerel, sardines, and prawn and other fish feed. A quarter of imports come from China, one-fifth from Papua New Guinea, and one-eighth from Vietnam, with other sources including Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, Thailand, and Nauru. Due to the establishment of the FMAs, the Sardine plan is expected to be integrated into individual FMA plans that are then adopted by LGUs. By December 2021, FMA 7 was the only FMA that had adopted the plan. In 2021, fisheries produced 4.25 million metric tons (PhP 302.44 billion): 2.25 million metric tons (52.88%) from aquaculture, 1.13 million metric tons (26.64%) from municipal fisheries, and 0.87 million metric tons (20.48%) from commercial fisheries. The most produced item was seaweed (1.34 million metric tons, or 31.63% of all fisheries production), followed by tuna (10.88%), milkfish (10.51%), sardines (8.75%), and tilapia (8.00%). USD 1,137.29 million worth of products were exported, 60% of which was tuna, seaweed, and crabs, and US$746.45 million was imported. Nationally, 2.19 million people were employed in municipal fishing activities, of which 50.03% were in capture fisheries, 11.59% in gleaning activities, and 11.28% in aquaculture. Other fish processing and municipal fishing-related activities employed 189,562 people. There were 923 licensed commercial vessel operators. Bangsamoro produced the most aquaculture products by volume, although in terms of value aquaculture in other regions produced more. Domestic consumption in 2021 was : of fresh fish, of processed fish, of dried fish, of shellfish, and other. In 2022, there were 2,302,648 fisherfolk registered with BFAR, of which 50.96% were in capture fisheries, 11.27% in aquaculture, 11.18% in gleaning, 6.83% in vending, and 1.96% in processing. Of these registered fisherfolk, 70% were men and 30% were women. Most are older: 9% are 30 or below, with 21.13% aged 31 to 40, 22.97% aged 51 to 60, and 24.42% older than that. Overall production was 4.34 million metric tons worth PhP 326.57 billion, of which aquaculture produced 2.35 million metric tons (54.15%), municipal fisheries 1.13 million metric tons (25.96%), and commercial fisheries 862,686.35 metric tons (19.89%). More than half of commercial fisheries products were landed in Region XII and Region IX combined. There were 5,090 registered commercial fishing vessels under 1,004 registered operators. Of these vessels, 45.66% were small-scale, 48.39% medium-scale, and 5.97% large-scale. Over half of the operators were registered in Metro Manila. 375,995 municipal fishing vessels registered with local governments. There were 2.35 million metric tons of aquaculture products created in the Philippines, 54.15% of all fisheries products in the Philippines, with a total value of around PhP 124.00 billion. The biggest commodity by volume was seaweed, which with 1,544,959.98 metric tons made up 65.8% of aquaculture production. The largest environment for aquaculture aside from seaweed farms was brackish ponds, followed by freshwater ponds and marine cages. By product type, the second largest by volume and highest by value was milkfish, of which 184,162.33 metric tons (47.47%) were produced in fish ponds and 180,290.27 metric tons (46.47%) were produced in fish cages. Tilapia was third by volume and third by value, with 77.19% of these tilapia being farmed in fish ponds. Shrimp was fourth by volume and second by value, with the most produced and most valuable shrimp being jumbo tiger shrimp. Seaweed farms produced the fourth-most value, PhP 16.60 billion, being sold for much less than some other fishery products per unit weight. Large volumes of seaweed production meant Bangsamoro was the region producing the most aquaculture products, with its 1,042,064.26 metric tons being 97.95% seaweed (66.07% of national seaweed production). The region producing the most value from aquaculture however was Region III, which produced 300,345.65 metric tons worth over PhP 40 billion. Much of this was tilapia, which made up 48.61% of Region III's production by volume and 28.25% by value. The value of Bangsamoro's aquaculture products was PhP 11.57 billion. In 2022, PHP66.07 billion (US$1.21 billion) of fisheries-related products were exported, while PHP50.14 billion (US$920.46 million) were imported. Most exports were tuna, seaweed, and crab, which together made up 58.36% of exports by volume and 69.61% by value. Other exports include eel, octopus, grouper, milkfish, shrimp, cuttlefish, and sardines. Tuna exports were 106,923 MT worth US$403.51 million. Seaweed exports were 48,491 MT, exported to the United States, the Netherlands, Spain, Germany, and China. Crab exports were 9,156 MT worth US$91,440. While crab exports by volume were mostly fresh or chilled crabs, crab products provided higher value. The main export markets for crabs were Hong Kong, China, the United States, and Taiwan. The main import providers were China, Vietnam, and Papua New Guinea. Per unit weight, exports were of much higher value than imports. ==Notes==