Parantaka I

Parantaka I continued the expansion started by his father, and invaded the Pandya kingdom in 915. He captured the Pandyan capital Madurai and assumed the title Madurain-konda (Capturer of Madurai). The Pandyan ruler Maravarman Rajasinha II sought the help of Kassapa V of Anuradhapura, who sent an army to his aid. Parantaka defeated the combined army at the Battle of Vellore, a decisive victory for the Cholas, but this victory was narrow. At the battle of Vellur, during the first attempt, Cholas defeated Pandyan army and slained the Lankan army. According to the Chronicles, Ceylon troops made the second attempt in this most of the Ceylonese troops have caught a plague and caused the death of most of the troops including the commander this causes the remaining Ceylonese troops to be recalled by King Kassapa V. This second attempt was not mentioned in Chola sources. Then Pandya king fled into exile in Sri Lanka and Parantaka I completed his conquest of the entire Pandya country. Parantaka wanted to celebrate his victory by a coronation in Madurai in which he was to invest himself with the insignia of Pandyan monarchy. However he was failed in this attempt by the Pandyan king, who had carried them away and left them in the safe custody of the Lankan king. == Lankan Expedition ==

Towards the end of his reign, Parantaka tried to capture Pandya regalia back by invading Lanka, although the Cholas were victorious in battle and conquered the northern provinces, but failed to take them. Now at that this time the Senapati here (in Ceylon) was absent in a rebellious border province. The king had him fetched and sent him forth to begin the war. The Senapati set forth, delivered battle and fell in the fight. Thereupon the king (Udaya) took the crown and the rest and betook himself to Rohana. The Chola troops marched but finding no way of entering Rohana, they turned and betook themselves from here to their own country but Chola troops made off with other booties allegedly there was a counter invasion by Ceylon and they were able to recover the loot but this is not mentioned by the Cholas..During his Lankan campaign (c. 946–947 CE), Parantaka I defeated the Sinhalese forces and sacked Anuradhapura, although he was unable to secure lasting control over the region. Mahavamsa also records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the Rohana hills. After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka. == War against the Rashtrakutas ==

Background Aditya I had two sons namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to a Rashtrakuta wife. After the death of Aditya I, Rashtrakuta king Krishna II tried to exert his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne. Battle of vallala In 907 CE, Parantaka became the king. Disappointed by this, Krishna II invaded the Chola country. On Rashtrakuta side, prince Indra III lead the battle, while the Chola side was led by King Parantaka and Prince Rajaditya. In the year 911, in the Battle of vallala, a large number of Rashtrakuta soldiers died and their army began to weaken. Krishna II withdrew and his forces retreated. The Cholas advanced further and attacked the Rashtrakutas and chased away from their territory. Eventually the Cholas defeated the Rashtrakutas. Parantaka Chola's early series of victories would also includes this Rashtrakuta War. Conflict with Rashtrakuta feudatories Banas and Vaidumbas During the early phase of Parantaka I’s conflict with the Rashtrakuta Empire and its allies, campaigns were directed against the Bana and Vaidumba chiefs. According to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the Bana rulers Vikramaditya II and his son Vijayaditya III were defeated in these campaigns, leading to the incorporation of Bana territory under Chola control, at times administered through loyal subordinates. The Vaidumbas, who were associated with the Banas, also appear to have been reduced to submission during this period, with some chiefs seeking refuge in Rashtrakuta domains. These events are generally placed in the early decades of Parantaka I’s reign. Against Nolamba king Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja During the 29th reign of Parantaka I, Chola influence appears to have extended into regions near Nolambavadi. A Kannada inscription dated to his 29th regnal year (c. 936 CE) of parantaka I, found at Bairakur in present-day Karnataka, indicates a possible conflict between Parantaka I and the Nolamba ruler Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Empire. While the evidence is not conclusive, some historians suggest that this encounter may have ended in favour of the Cholas, pointing to a possible success of Parantaka I over a Rashtrakuta subordinate. Initial encounter with krishna III Some historians note that the struggle between Parantaka I and the Rashtrakutas was not uniformly favourable to the latter. The Kanyakumari inscription of Virarajendra states that Parantaka I defeated Krishna III. Historian A. S. Altekar interprets this reference as possibly relating to an earlier engagement prior to 944 CE, suggesting that Parantaka I achieved a temporary success against Krishna III before the renewed Rashtrakuta invasion that culminated in the Battle of Takkolam (c. 949 CE). K. A. Nilakanta Sastri also questioned the early dating of the Siddhalingamadam inscription attributing the conquest of Kanchi and Tanjavur to Krishna III in 944–45, arguing that firm Rashtrakuta occupation of Tondaimandalam occurred only after the Battle of Takkolam. == Civic and religious contributions ==

Although Parantaka I was engaged for the greater part of his long reign in warlike operations, the internal administration of his country was a matter in which he took a keen interest. He laid out the rules for the conduct of the village assemblies in an inscription. The village institutions of South India date from a much earlier period than that of Parantaka I, but he introduced many salutary reforms for the proper administration of local self-government. The copper-plate inscriptions detail Parantaka I's promotion of agricultural prosperity by the digging of numerous canals all over the country. He also utilised the spoils of war to donate to numerous temple charities. He is reported to have covered the Chidambaram Siva Temple with a golden roof. He was a devout Saiva (follower of Siva). == Personal life ==

Parantaka had many wives, of whom no fewer than eleven appear in the inscriptions. He was religious but secular and encouraged various faiths. Various members of his family built temples and regularly donated to various shrines across the kingdom. Kotanta Rama, incidental with Rajaditya, was the eldest son of Parantaka I. There is an inscription of him from Tiruvorriyur making a donation for some lamps during the 30th year of his father. Besides Kotanta Rama, Parantaka had several other sons; Arikulakesari, Gandaraditya and Uttamasili. Parankata had the Chera Perumals as his close allies and the relationship was further strengthened by two marriages. The king is assumed to have married two distinct Chera princesses (the mothers of his two sons, Rajaditya and Arinjaya). A member of the retinue of pillaiyar (prince) Rajadittadeva gave a gift to the Vishnu temple at Tirunavalur/Tirumanallur in the 32nd year of Parantaka I. Tirunavalur was also known as "Rajadittapuram" after Rajaditya. It is assumed that a large number of warriors from the aristocratic families of the Chera kingdom were part of the contingent of this Chera-Chola prince. In the 39th year of Parantaka I, his daughter-in-law, Mahadevadigal, a queen of Rajaditya and the daughter of Lataraja donated a lamp to the temple of Rajadityesvara for the merit of her brother. He had at least two daughters: Viramadevi and Anupama. Uttamasili does not appear to have lived long enough to succeed to the Chola throne. He bore numerous epithets such as Viranarayana, Virakirti, Vira-Chola, Vikrama-Chola, Irumadi-Sola (Chola with two crowns alluding to the Chola and the Pandya kingdoms), Devendran (lord of the gods), Chakravartin (the emperor), Panditavatsalan (fond of learned men), Kunjaramallan (the wrestler with elephants) and Surachulamani (the crest jewel of the heroes). Parantaka I died in 955. His second son Gandaraditya succeeded him. ==Inscriptions==

. The following is an inscription of Parantaka I from Tiruvorriyur. It is important as it shows that his dominions included regions beyond Thondaimandalam: This is of his son Arinjaya making a donation. Once again it is from Tiruvorriyur: There are also several inscriptions of his son Rajaditya from Tirunavalur. One such inscription is the following from the temple of Rajadityesvara in Tirunavalur. The temple was also called Tiruttondîsvaram: == Chola-Chera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries CE) ==