Pennsylvania forts in the French and Indian War

Competition between Britain and France over control of the Ohio Country began to escalate with the destruction of the British fort at Pickawillany in 1752. Pennsylvania authorities were alarmed when the French built Fort Presque Isle and Fort Le Boeuf in 1753, although it was unclear at the time whether these forts were built in British colonial territory. The Ohio Company attempted to counter this by building Fort Prince George at the forks of the Ohio in April 1754, but the French quickly captured the fort and replaced it with their own Fort Duquesne. In June, Washington's Virginia troops hastily built Fort Necessity, which the French captured and destroyed in July. This military occupation of territory, by building forts as supply and communication points, would determine the control of colonial lands and would define the frontier for both nations. Braddock's defeat at the Battle of the Monongahela in July 1755 left Pennsylvania without a professional military force. The Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly, composed largely at the time of Quakers who opposed any kind of military action for religious reasons, resisted the construction of fortresses and the formation of a militia, but pressure from the displaced settlers forced them to appropriate funds for weapons and the construction of blockhouses for civilian refuge. On July 31, the Provincial Assembly received petitions from several townships in Lancaster County, "setting forth the great Danger they apprehend themselves to be in since the late Defeat of the Forces under General Braddock, and praying that this House would furnish them with Arms and Ammunition for Defence of their Houses and Families." On August 22, the Assembly granted £1000 and formed a committee of five members, one of whom was Benjamin Franklin. By October the committee had purchased five hundred guns and ammunition which were distributed to settlers in Cumberland, York, and Lancaster counties. The Provincial Assembly decided that merely sending arms and ammunition to settlers would not be an adequate response. Community leaders demanded protection, petitioning the Assembly to "grant a sufficient Sum of Money to maintain such a Number of regular Troops as may be thought necessary to defend our Frontiers, and build Fortifications in proper Places." On December 10 and 11, over a hundred Native Americans attacked farms and a mission school near Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania during the Northampton massacre, burning 45 buildings and killing as many as 89 people. == Construction ==

Governor Robert Hunter Morris was in Shippensburg in July 1755, when he received the news of Braddock's defeat. Morris immediately laid out the ground plan for a fort in the town, and ordered a similar fort to be constructed in neighboring Carlisle. Settlers immediately began fortifying homesteads and mills to serve as blockhouses where civilians could take refuge when attacked. George Croghan fortified his trading post at Aughwick Creek in September 1755, and this later became Fort Shirley. Thomas McKee began fortifying Hunter's Mill in October, and this eventually became Fort Hunter. Peter Hedrick fortified his homestead and this eventually became Fort Swatara. William Maxwell (a survivor of the Braddock Expedition) formed a company of militia at Peters Township and began building a stockade at McDowell's Mill on November 3. Fortified homesteads included Fort Dupuy, Fort Deshler, Light's Fort, Whitefield House, and Heinrich Zeller House. The provincial government frequently assisted communities in building their own forts, recognizing that this offered more protection for more people. Some of these community blockhouses later received garrisons of provincial troops and swivel guns. These smaller "private forts" provided refuge for civilians and bolstered confidence that Native American attacks could be resisted, encouraging settlers to stay on their farms. Fort Granville was captured after Lenape warriors set fire to a wall, destroying it. Artillery was rarely deployed against Pennsylvania forts, as most attacks involved only French-allied Native American warriors. In 1756, French troops brought two small brass cannons with them when they planned to attack Fort Augusta, but after reconnoitering, they found the distance too great for the guns to shoot from the hill opposite the fort, and the attack was abandoned. Colonel Clapham had taken particular care to reinforce the fort's main walls so that they would resist artillery, however most Pennsylvania forts were not so elaborate. Some forts were merely fortified homesteads with firing slits or loopholes cut into the walls, or two-story blockhouses surrounded by stockades. Most buildings were constructed entirely of wood (except for the magazine), although a few forts, such as Fort Henry and Fort Chambers, had tile, lead plate, or slate-shingle roofs to prevent fire. == Problems and challenges ==

By the summer of 1756, over three thousand colonists had been killed or captured in Pennsylvania, Virginia and the Carolinas. Numerous settlements had been burned or abandoned. However, the construction of forts and blockhouses, garrisoned with provincial troops and militias, well-supplied and in regular communication, meant that Native American war parties could no longer attack isolated farms and small communities without confronting armed resistance. Pennsylvania troops often pursued attackers, particularly war parties that had taken captives, as in the Battle of Sideling Hill in April 1756, when three companies of militia under the command of Captain Hance Hamilton attempted to rescue 27 prisoners taken after the capture of Fort McCord. In September, Colonel John Armstrong attacked and destroyed the Lenape village of Kittanning, the first military strike at a Native American community that was used as a staging area for war parties. This demonstrated that the defensive line of forts was robust enough to launch offensive strikes, turning the course of the war. Although the forts themselves served as strongholds, it was essential to "range" between forts to detect enemy war parties moving through the countryside, meaning that a part of each garrison would be absent from the fort while on patrol. Commanders were under pressure to petition for food, blankets and tools, and often had to give precious supplies to friendly Indians as a means of preventing violence. The Quaker pacifist Assembly resisted passing any law creating a legitimate military force, but permitted volunteer Associations to form, and granted commissions to officers elected by the troops. As the need for a professional defense force became more evident, more pay for troops became available, but it was not generous, there were often long delays between payments, and some troops were never paid at all. Living conditions .Living conditions at the forts were rustic and uncomfortable. The province provided flour and some salted meat, but meat frequently spoiled during transport and storage, and troops were sometimes served foul-smelling, maggoty meals. Smoked and salted meat were expensive and not widely available in frontier forts, but live cattle were driven to some forts. Soldiers could hunt or purchase game meat from friendly Native Americans, mostly venison. When the fort had no well, troops would have to collect water from outside the fort, at their own risk. The forts were often overcrowded, the barracks smoky and smelly, and blankets, shoes and clothing were scarce. A percentage of every garrison was constantly ill, and access to medical care (such as it was) was sporadic. Looming over all this was the ceaseless threat of attack, and stealthy Native American war-parties harassed the forts by ambushing soldiers, stealing or destroying food, tools and weapons, and setting buildings on fire. Civilians supposedly under the protection of the forts were murdered and kidnapped regularly, forcing them to take refuge inside the forts, straining supplies of food and water. Morale occasionally fell to the point where the number of new recruits could barely compensate for men lost through desertion. == The Forbes Expedition ==

, showing the palisade and gate with artillery. After the Kittanning Expedition in September 1756, the Lenape raided Pennsylvania settlements less frequently, giving the Pennsylvania an opportunity to prepare to go on the offensive against the French. The British hoped to put pressure on the French strongholds in the west, Fort Duquesne, Fort Machault, Fort Le Boeuf and Fort Presque Isle. Events in New York had severely restricted the flow of supplies to these forts, and Colonel Henry Bouquet (in place of General Forbes, who was ill) sent Major James Grant to reconnoiter the area around Fort Duquesne with 850 men. Grant thought to exploit the fort's weakness but was overwhelmed at the Battle of Fort Duquesne, in which half of his men were killed and he was taken prisoner. The British then built Fort Ligonier to serve as winter headquarters and a staging area for another assault on Fort Duquesne. In October 1758, Fort Ligonier was assaulted by 440 French troops and 150 Lenape warriors, but without artillery they were unable to take the fort, even though they inflicted over a hundred casualties. Unlike most Pennsylvania forts of this period, Fort Pitt was constructed under the supervision of two experienced military engineers, Captain Harry Gordon and Major James Robertson, both of the 60th Royal American Regiment. == Aftermath and legacy ==

By 1760, most of Pennsylvania was under British control, and the expensive and complex defensive chain of forts was quickly dismantled. Most were abandoned by the start of Pontiac's War in 1763, but a few forts were refurbished for use as patrol stations or supply depots. An even smaller number were put to use during the American Revolutionary War. Four forts from the mid-18th century have been reconstructed: Fort Necessity, Fort Ligonier, Fort Bedford, and Fort Loudoun. The only remaining building associated with Fort Pitt is the Fort Pitt Block House. Two private forts, Heinrich Zeller House and Light's Fort, are open to the public. == See also ==