War of Independence, 1961–1975 In 1961, the
People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and
National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), based in neighbouring countries, launched a guerrilla campaign against
Portuguese rule in Angola, in what was called the
Overseas Province of Angola. In 1966, the
National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) joined the struggle for independence against Portugal. The MPLA was
Marxist-Leninist and backed by both
Cuba and the
Soviet Union. UNITA was primarily backed by China. The war lasted until the overthrow of Portugal's
Estado Novo regime in 1974 through the
Carnation Revolution. On 15 January 1975 the different parties signed the
Alvor Accords. The agreement promised Angolan independence and elections for the
National Assembly of Angola in October 1975. The agreement also called for the integration of the Angolan parties into a new unified Angolan military.
Civil War, 1975–1991 During the independence war, the three pro-independent groups sometimes fought each other, in addition to the Portuguese. Following the Alvor Accords, the relationship between these groups deteriorated further. In July 1975, the MPLA violently forced the FNLA out of Luanda, while UNITA voluntarily withdrew to its stronghold in the south. By August, the MPLA had conquered 11 of the 15 provincial capitals, including the capital city
Luanda, and also the oil rich
Cabinda, which was claimed by the separatist
Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC). On October 23,
South Africa launched
Operation Savannah, with 2,000 soldiers crossing from
Namibia in support of both the FNLA and UNITA. They quickly captured five provincial capitals from the MPLA. Zaire also intervened from the north against the MPLA in support of the FNLA. At the start of November, Cuba sent 4,000 soldiers in support of the MPLA as part of
Operation Carlota. On 11 November 1975,
Agostinho Neto, the leader of the MPLA, declared Angola's independence as the People's Republic of Angola a
one-party Marxist-Leninist state. The FNLA and UNITA forged an alliance on 23 November 1975, proclaiming their own coalition government, the
Democratic People's Republic of Angola, based in Huambo with FLNA's
Holden Roberto and UNITA's
Jonas Savimbi as co-presidents. The Cuban intervention, which would eventually number 18,000, was key in securing the MPLA's positions and repelling the advances of FNLA and UNITA. South Africa began withdrawing its troops in January 1976. The MPLA, with Cuban help, consolidated power over the whole country capturing all of Angola's provincial capitals, including Huambo on 8 February. Without South African support, UNITA was weakened and withdrew into the bush to fight a guerrilla war where they continued to be supplied by South Africa and the United States. Factionalism within the MPLA became a major challenge to Neto's power by late 1975. Interior minister
Nito Alves, and Chief of Staff
José Jacinto Van-Dúnem, began planning a coup d'état against Neto, allegedly with Soviet backing. Alves and Van-Dunem
planned to arrest Neto on 21 May 1977 before a meeting of the MPLA's Central Committee but this was cancelled after the location of the meeting was changed. The Central Committee accused Alves of factionalism and voted to dismiss Alves and Van-Dunem. During the civil war, South Africa would launch large-scale operations in Angola to attack
SWAPO guerrillas who were fighting for Namibian independence from South Africa. They would also launch operations in support of UNITA guerrillas while Cuban forces remained in Angola in support of government military operations. In January 1984, an agreement was negotiated. South Africa obtained from Angola a promise to withdraw its support for the SWAPO in exchange for the evacuation of all South African troops from Angola, however South Africa continued to launch raids into Angola. In tandem with the
fall of the Soviet Union, in 1991 the MPLA and UNITA signed the peace agreement known as the
Bicesse Accords, which allowed for
multiparty elections in Angola. In 1992, the People's Republic of Angola was constitutionally succeeded by the
Republic of Angola and elections were scheduled. Angola held the first round of its
1992 presidential election on 29–30 September. Dos Santos officially received 49.57% of the vote and Savimbi won 40.6%. A second round of voting was required since no candidate had received more than 50%. UNITA and the other opposition parties, as well as some election observers, said the election hadn't been fair. On 31 October, government troops in Luanda attacked UNITA supporters, including UNITA Vice President
Jeremias Chitunda, who was killed. Thousands of UNITA and FNLA voters were massacred across the country by the MPLA in what is known as the
Halloween Massacre. The civil war resumed and only ended after Savimbi was killed in 2002. The war had killed 800,000 people and displaced 4 million.
Economy Following Angola's
war of independence, the nation was plunged into a profound economic crisis and suffered extensive destruction of its infrastructure.The conflict against
Portugal devastated the land, crippling agriculture. The mass exodus of Portuguese settlers resulted in a significant brain drain, particularly of skilled technicians in industry, hindering its development. Furthermore, the institution of the new
Marxist-Leninist government led many companies to flee Angola. The MPLA's main objective was to rebuild the country's economy. Mass campaigns to socialize the means of production would begin, leading to nationalizations in industry and collectivizations in agriculture. In the early years of the People's Republic of Angola, the economy would be heavily dependent on aid from the Eastern Bloc and the Soviet Union, which would be so extensive as to be indispensable. The Angolan government managed its oil windfall effectively. The trade balance remained profitable and external debt was kept within reasonable limits. In 1985, debt service amounted to $324 million, or about 15% of exports. The
oil industry was the backbone of Angolan industry and a major contributor to the country's GDP, and it experienced significant growth under the
MPLA. When the Portuguese fled, most small manufacturing businesses were left without their administrative workforce, managers, and even owners; by 1976, only 284 of 692 manufacturing companies were operating under their former management. In response to the decline of the manufacturing sector, in March 1976 the MPLA government enacted the State Intervention Act and nationalized all the abandoned businesses.
Education A major effort was made in the field of adult education and literacy, particularly in urban centers. In 1986, the number of primary school students exceeded one and a half million, and nearly half a million adults learned to read and write. The language of instruction remained mainly Portuguese, but experiments were tried to introduce the study of local African languages from the first years of schooling. Relations between the churches and the ruling party remained relatively calm. == See also ==