Selective eating

The etiology of selective eating is not well understood Additionally, several studies provide evidence that food neophobia is highly heritable. A study conducted on over 5000 twin pairs and their parents found a neophobia heritability estimate of 0.78, although about 25% of phenotypic variation was accounted for by environmental factors. Lastly, the food environment at home, encompassing food availability and exposure to novel foods, significantly influences children’s food preferences and behaviors. Children exposed to a greater variety of foods at home tend to consume more fruits and vegetables. However, it’s important to note that some families will struggle to provide their children with varied healthy food options due to socioeconomic restrictions or food insecurity. Ultimately, various factors interact to shape each child’s eating behaviours and food preferences. Early experiences including exposure to flavors in utero and via breast milk, interact with genetic differences in flavor perception to establish food preferences. Nurture elements such as exposure to different tastes and parental feeding practices can modify feeding behaviors. Conversely, a child's innate preferences, behaviors, and temperament can influence nurture elements. Research indicates that children who are sensitive to sensory stimuli may be less likely to model their parents' fruit and vegetable consumption, highlighting the bidirectional nature of picky eating. Further research is needed to fully understand the intricate interactions between these factors and their relation to selective eating. == Implications ==

Family conflict Selective eating often causes conflict within the family. Parents of selective eaters commonly report that their children consume a restricted range of foods; require food prepared in particular ways; express strong preferences and aversions towards food and throw tantrums when these are denied. This often leads parents to providing meals for their children that are different from the rest of the family. Selective eating may also be a significant source of concern for parents as it may prompt physician visits and potentially spark conflict between parents regarding how to manage their child's eating behavior. Physical health Selective eating is characterised by a restricted diet. Restricted diet can have a concerning impact on growth and development. Studies show it is associated with poor physical health through nutritional deficiencies including low intakes of iron and zinc as these are associated with low intakes of fruit, vegetables, and meat. Also, lower intakes of vitamin C, vitamin E, folate, and fiber has been noted, which may lead to a weakened immune response and digestive problems. Studies have shown mixed findings regarding the relationship between selective eating and being at risk of being underweight or overweight. A 1997 study of a group of selective eaters (aged 4–14) found that "a significant minority has poor growth or weight gain." Yet, this observation could be attributed to their broadened interpretation of selective eating and the inclusion of much younger children. There remains little evidence for a consistent effect of being a selective eater on growth trajectories. Further research is needed to investigate the effects of selective eating on brain development and metabolism. Psychosocial symptoms Selective eating is linked to eating psychopathology and psychosocial dysfunction. This includes both internalizing (e.g., anxiety, depression) and externalizing (e.g., attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) psychopathology. Both moderate and severe levels of selective eating are associated with psychopathological symptoms, and the severity of these symptoms tends to worsen with more severe selective eating. Selective eaters tend to show social avoidance, although it's unclear whether this is a result of selective eating behavior or simply reflects a primary social skills deficit. The extent of social avoidance varies, but one case study of a 9-year-old boy identifies the impact of selective eating specifically. He found it difficult to make friends because he missed lunch at school. His selective eating also stymied his family's vacation plans and contributed to household tensions. == Diagnosis ==

Assessment of selective eating varies due to the lack of universal definition. Considering the complex etiology of selective eating, assessment (and later treatment) ideally should be carried out by an interdisciplinary team of professionals. and the Food Neophobia Scale (FNS). These questionnaires have undergone validation against weight-for-age-z score or child body mass index z-score (BMIz), with greater selective eating being negatively correlated with BMIz or weight-for-age z-score. However, a limitation of such scales is that they either rely on individuals to self-identify as selective eaters or rely on parental report which may be biased. Parents may struggle to accurately gauge the extent to which their child's eating habits differ from typical behavior for children, or they may find that their perception of their child's eating behavior is influenced by their own concerns regarding eating and feeding habits. Extreme forms of selective eating have been recognized as eating disorders, mainly avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID). These should be assessed through diagnosis. The DSM-5 includes a 'feeding and eating disorders' section and covers several diagnoses that may be related to selective eating. ==See also==