Under the rule of the Roman Empire, from 218 BCE to 472 CE, Spain (then
Hispania), included a major part of the Moroccan coast as a province, then called
Mauretania Tingitana. This territory includes modern-day Ceuta and Melilla. During the
Reconquista and mainly following the conquest of
Granada in 1492, forces of the
Castilian and
Portuguese kingdoms conquered and maintained numerous posts in North Africa for trade and as a defence against
Barbary piracy. In August 1415, the Portuguese conquered the city of Ceuta. In 1481, the
papal bull Aeterni regis had granted all land south of the
Canary Islands to Portugal. Only this archipelago and the possessions of
Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña (1476–1524), Melilla (
conquered by Pedro de Estopiñán in 1497),
Villa Cisneros (founded in 1502 in current
Western Sahara),
Mazalquivir (1505),
Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera (1508),
Oran (1509–1708; 1732–1792),
Algiers (1510–1529),
Bugia (1510–1554),
Tripoli (1511–1551), and
Tunis (1535–1569) remained as Spanish territory in Africa. Finally, following the independence of Portugal after the end of the Spanish-led
Iberian Union,
Ceuta was ceded by Portugal to Spain in 1668. In 1848, Spanish troops conquered the Islas Chafarinas. In the late 19th century, after the so-called
Scramble for Africa, European nations had taken over colonial control of most of the African continent. The justification for the ownership of the protectorates by Spain was guided by a colonial ideology, claiming to be on a civilizing mission. Spain had already lost much of its colonial influence in Latin America, at a time when colonial influence was seen as a marker of strength in Europe. The
Hispano-Moroccan War of 1860 resulted in a renewed interest by Spain in holding the territories, especially Ceuta. In the aftermath of the conflict, Spain declared Ceuta and Melilla to be perpetual territories, as well as establishing in the treaty the recognition of sovereignty by Morocco over the
Chafarinas Islands. The
Treaty of Fez (signed on 30 March 1912) made most of Morocco a protectorate of France, while Spain assumed the role of protecting power over the northern part, called
Spanish Morocco. When Spain relinquished its protectorate and recognized Morocco's independence in 1956, it did not give up these minor territories, as Spain had held them well before the establishment of its protectorate. The move to "nationalize" the
plazas has been guided by a nationalist sentiment from the Spanish government, to legitimize the sovereignty over the territories. Ceuta and Melilla have become the target of a campaign to justify the ownership based on the geographical heritage of the
Classical Antiquity era. The Spanish protectorate and the
plazas de soberanía are understood to be different, especially since the strongholds remained under Spanish rule after the end of the protectorate. France similarly sought to remain in control of Morocco after independence, with a continuation of French rule given through the rationale of advancement of Moroccan interests. Morocco is contemporaneously affected by the effects of continued French rule after independence, and the continued stronghold by the Spanish government with Ceuta and Melilla. On 11 July 2002, Morocco stationed six gendarmes on
Perejil Island, which was at the time a source of complaint by Spain. The Spanish Armed Forces responded by launching a military operation code-named
Operation Romeo-Sierra. The operation was carried out by Spanish commandos of
Grupo de Operaciones Especiales. The Spanish Navy and Air Force provided support; the six Moroccan navy cadets did not offer any resistance and were captured and evicted from the island. It has since been evacuated by both countries. On 3 January 2020, 42 migrants went to the Chafarinas Islands; the Civil Guard ordered their immediate expulsion without following the legal procedure. The Spanish NGO 'Walking Border' denounced the "hot returns," or expulsions without due process, as violations of international law. Strict immigration policy over the
plazas de soberanía has made it so that only certain immigrants are welcomed to the strongholds. Stigma surrounding the background of the people crossing the Mediterranean to arrive to the shores of the strongholds have informed the harsh response to this influx of immigrants and refugees. The most extreme recent example of "hot returns" is the
2022 Melilla incident. == Physical geography ==