, In Germany, nobility and titles pertaining to it were recognised or bestowed upon individuals by emperors, kings and lesser ruling royalty, and were then inherited by the legitimate,
male-line descendants of the ennobled person. Families that had been considered noble as early as pre-1400s Germany (i.e., the or "ancient nobility") were usually eventually recognised by a sovereign, confirming their entitlement to whatever legal privileges nobles enjoyed in that sovereign's realm. Noble rank was usually granted to men by
letters patent (see ), whereas women were members of nobility by descent or by marriage to a nobleman. Nobility was inherited equally by all legitimate descendants in the
male line. German titles of nobility were usually inherited by all male-line descendants, although some descended by male
primogeniture, especially in 19th and 20th century
Prussia (e.g.,
Otto von Bismarck, born a baronial (not a title), was granted the title of count () extending to all his male-line descendants, and later that of prince () in primogeniture). Upon promulgation of the
Weimar Constitution on 11 August 1919, all Germans were declared equal before the law. an exceptional practice regarding surnames borne by former members of the nobility: whereas the
gender differentiation in German surnames, widespread until the 18th century and colloquially retained in some dialects, was abolished in Germany with the introduction of officially registered invariable surnames by the late 19th century, former noble titles transformed into parts of the surname in 1919 continue to appear in female and male forms. in 1871–1918 Altogether abolished were titles of sovereigns, such as emperor/empress, king/queen, grand duke/grand duchess, etc. However, former titles shared and inherited by all members of the family were retained but incorporated into the surname. For instance, members of the former royal families of
Prussia and Bavaria were allowed use of ; or . In the cases of the former kings/queens of Saxony and Württemberg, the ducal title borne by non-ruling cadets of their dynasties before 1919, or for the six deposed grand dukes (i.e., the former rulers of
Baden,
Hesse,
Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
Mecklenburg-Strelitz,
Oldenburg, and
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach) and their consorts were retained. Any dynasty who did not reign prior to 1918 but had held a specific title as heir to one of Germany's former thrones (e.g., ("hereditary prince"))—along with any heir to a title of nobility inherited via primogeniture, and their wives—were permitted to incorporate those titles into elements of the personal surname. However, these titles became extinct upon their deaths, not being heritable. With the demise of all persons styled "crown prince" before 1918, the term no longer exists as a legal surname element. Traditional titles exclusively used for unmarried noblewomen, such as , and , were also transformed into parts of the legal surname, subject to change at marriage or upon request. All other former titles and
nobiliary particles are now inherited as part of the surname, and remain protected as private names under the laws. Whereas the title previously prefixed the given and surname (e.g., ), the legal usage moves the former title to the surname (i.e., ). However, the pre-1919 style sometimes continues in colloquial usage. In Austria, by contrast, not only were the privileges of
the nobility abolished, but their titles and nobiliary particles as well. German nobility was not simply distinguished by noble ranks and titles, but was also seen as a distinctive ethos. Title 9, §1 of the
General State Laws for the Prussian States declared that the nobility's responsibility "as the first social class in the state" was "the defence of the country, as well as the supporting of the exterior dignity and the interior constitution thereof". Most
German states had strict laws concerning proper conduct, employment, or marriage of nobles. Violating these laws could result in temporary or permanent ("loss of the status of nobility"). Until the late 19th century, for example, it was usually forbidden for nobles, theoretically on pain of , to marry persons "of low birth". Moreover, nobles employed in menial labour and lowly trades or wage labour could lose their nobility, as could nobles convicted of
capital crimes. only concerned the individual who had violated nobility codes of conduct. Their kin, spouse, and living children were not affected, but children born to a man after an were commoners and did not inherit the father's former nobility. Various organisations perpetuate the historical legacy of the former nobility, documenting genealogy, chronicling the history of noble families and sometimes declining to acknowledge persons who acquired noble surnames in ways impossible before 1919.
Marriage strategies Many German states, however, required a marriage to a woman of elevated social status in order for a nobleman to pass on his titles and privileges to his children. In this respect, the
General State Laws for the Prussian States of 1794 spoke of marriage (and children) "to the right hand". This excluded marriages with women of the lower social classes, but did not mean a woman had to come from nobility herself. Especially towards the end of the 19th century and beyond, when a new upper class of wealthy common people had emerged following industrialization, marriages with commoners were becoming more widespread. However, with few exceptions, this did not apply to higher nobility, who largely continued to marry among themselves. Upwardly mobile German families typically followed marriage strategies involving men of lower rank marrying women of higher status who brought a major dowry. ==Nobiliary particles==