Ptolemy VIII Physcon

Ptolemy VIII was the younger son of Ptolemy V, who reigned from 204 to 180 BC. Ptolemy V's reign had been dominated by the Fifth Syrian War (204–198 BC), in which the Ptolemaic realm fought against the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who ruled the Near East and Asia Minor. In that war, Antiochus III had completely defeated the Ptolemaic forces, annexed Coele-Syria and Judaea to his empire, and reduced Egypt to a subordinate position. The new situation was solidified with a peace treaty, in which Ptolemy V married Antiochus III's daughter Cleopatra I in 194 BC. Ptolemy VI was the eldest son of the couple, born in 186 BC, and was the heir to the throne from birth. They also had a daughter, Cleopatra II. Their youngest child, Ptolemy VIII, was probably born around 184 BC. The defeat in the Fifth Syrian War cast a shadow over the rest of Ptolemy V's reign. One prominent faction within the Ptolemaic court agitated for a return to war in order to restore Egyptian prestige, while another faction resisted the expense involved in rebuilding and remilitarising the realm. When Ptolemy V died unexpectedly in September 180 BC, at the age of only 30, he was succeeded by Ptolemy VI. Since the new king was only six years old, actual power rested with the regents - first Cleopatra I (180–178/7 BC) and then Eulaeus and Lenaeus (178/7–170 BC). These regents were more closely associated with the peaceful faction and, as a result, members of the warhawk faction seem to have begun to look to the young Ptolemy VIII as a potential figurehead for their movement. ==First reign (170–163 BC)==

Accession and the Sixth Syrian War (170–168 BC) The Seleucid king Seleucus IV, who had followed a generally peaceful policy, was murdered in 175 BC, and after two months of conflict his brother Antiochus IV secured the throne. The unsettled situation empowered the warhawks in the Ptolemaic court and Eulaeus and Lenaeus made efforts to conciliate them. By 172 BC, they seem to have embraced the warhawks' position. In October 170 BC, Ptolemy VIII, now about sixteen, was promoted to the status of co-regent and incorporated into the Ptolemaic dynastic cult as one of the Theoi Philomētores (Mother-loving gods) alongside his brother and sister, who had now been married to one another. The current year was declared the first year of a new era. John Grainger argues that these ceremonies were intended to paper over the factional differences that had developed in the court and to promote unity in the run-up to war. Ptolemy VI remained the senior king, as demonstrated later in 170 BC by the declaration of Ptolemy VI's adulthood and the celebration of his coming-of-age ceremony (the anakleteria), marking the formal end of the regency government. In practice, however, the regents Eulaeus and Lenaeus remained in charge of the government. The defeated army withdrew to the Nile Delta, while Antiochus seized Pelusium and then moved on the Delta. As a result of this defeat, Eulaeus and Lenaeus were toppled by a military coup and replaced with two prominent Ptolemaic generals, Comanus and Cineas. As Antiochus IV advanced on Alexandria, Ptolemy VI went out to meet him. They negotiated an agreement of friendship, which in effect reduced Egypt to a Seleucid client state. When news of the agreement reached Alexandria, the people of the city rioted. Comanus and Cineas rejected the agreement, rejected Ptolemy VI's authority and declared Ptolemy VIII the sole king (Cleopatra II's position remained unchanged). Antiochus IV responded by placing Alexandria under siege, but he was unable to take the city and withdrew from Egypt in September 169 BC, as winter approached, leaving Ptolemy VI as his puppet king in Memphis and retaining a garrison in Pelusium. Within two months, Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II reconciled with Ptolemy VI and he returned to Alexandria as their co-regent. The restored government repudiated the agreement that Ptolemy VI had made with Antiochus IV and began to recruit new troops from Greece. In response, in spring 168 BC, Antiochus IV invaded Egypt for a second time. Officially, this invasion was justified by the claim that Ptolemy VIII had unjustly appropriated his older brother's authority. Antiochus IV quickly occupied Memphis and was crowned king of Egypt and advanced on Alexandria. However, the Ptolemies had appealed to Rome for help over the winter and a Roman embassy led by Gaius Popillius Laenas confronted Antiochus at the town of Eleusis and forced him to agree to a settlement, bringing the war to an end. From joint rule to sole rule (168–163 BC) as Egyptian pharaoh, Louvre Initially, the joint rule of the two brothers and Cleopatra II, which had been established during the war, continued. However, the complete failure of the Egyptian forces in the Sixth Syrian War had left the Ptolemaic monarchy's prestige seriously diminished and it caused a permanent rift between Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII. In 165 BC, Dionysius Petosarapis, a prominent courtier who appears to have been of native Egyptian origin, attempted to take advantage of the conflict between the brothers in order to take control of the government. He announced to the people of Alexandria that Ptolemy VI had tried to get him to assassinate Ptolemy VIII and tried to whip up a mob to support him. Ptolemy VI managed to convince Ptolemy VIII that the charges were untrue and the two brothers appeared publicly together in the stadium, defusing the crisis. Dionysius fled the city and convinced some military contingents to mutiny. Heavy fighting took place in the Fayyum over the next year. The exact course of events is not known, but Diodorus Siculus reports that the instigator of the expulsion was a man named Timotheus, who then became the dominant minister. Ptolemy VIII now assumed the epithet Euergetēs ('benefactor'), which recalled his ancestor Ptolemy III and distinguished him from Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II who both bore the epithet Philomētōr. Ptolemy VIII is said to have behaved tyrannically, and his minister Timotheus used torture and arbitrary executions to eliminate his enemies. In summer 163 BC, the people of Alexandria rioted against Ptolemy VIII, expelling him in turn and recalling Ptolemy VI. ==Reign in Cyrenaica (163–145 BC)==

On his return to power, a pair of Roman agents convinced Ptolemy VI to grant Ptolemy VIII control of Cyrenaica. Ptolemy VIII departed for Cyrene, but he was not satisfied. In late 163 or early 162 BC, he went to Rome to request help. The Senate was convinced that the division was unfair, declaring that Ptolemy VIII ought to receive Cyprus as well. The ancient historian Polybius believed that the Senate made this decision with the conscious goal of weakening Ptolemaic power. Titus Manlius Torquatus and Gnaeus Cornelius Merula were sent as envoys to force Ptolemy VI to concede this. From Rome, Ptolemy VIII went to Greece where he recruited soldiers (including Damasippus) in preparation for an expedition to seize Cyprus by force. He had sailed to Rhodes with this fleet when he encountered Torquatus and Merula, who convinced him to discharge his troops and return to Cyrene. He went to the border between Egypt and Cyrene, waiting with a force of 1,000 Cretan mercenaries at a small town just west of Paraetonium for the results of the Roman negotiations with Ptolemy VI. Ptolemy VIII had been waiting there for forty days when Ptolemy Sempetesis, the governor that Ptolemy VIII had left in charge of Cyrene in his absence, suddenly raised a revolt. Ptolemy VIII marched to suppress the revolt and was defeated in battle. He regained control over Cyrene by the end of 162 BC, but it is not known whether he achieved this by negotiation or military action. This expedition lasted up to a year, before fierce Cypriot resistance forced him to abandon the enterprise. In 156 or 155 BC, Ptolemy VIII faced a failed assassination attempt, which he attributed to his older brother. Ptolemy VIII was besieged by his older brother at Lapethus and was captured. Ptolemy VIII was persuaded to withdraw from Cyprus, in exchange for continued possession of Cyrenaica, an annual payment of grain, and a promise of marriage to one of Ptolemy VI's infant daughters (probably Cleopatra Thea) once she came of age. Relations with Rome Throughout his time as king in Cyrene, Ptolemy VIII maintained extremely close relations with Rome. From 162 BC, he was an official amicus et socius (friend and ally) of the Roman Republic. During his time in Rome he is said to have met Cornelia. In 152 BC, after the death of her husband, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, Ptolemy VIII allegedly asked for her hand in marriage, which she refused. This encounter was popular in neoclassical art, but it is unlikely that it ever actually took place. Even if untrue, the story may reflect close ties between Ptolemy VIII and the gentes Cornelia and Sempronia. By contrast, Ptolemy VI seems to have maintained ties with Cato the Elder. This act is not mentioned by any literary source but it fits with the very close alignment between Ptolemy VIII and the Romans that is attested in the literary sources. Similar testaments are known from other contemporary monarchs, notably Attalus III of Pergamum. They were often used by monarchs as an attempt to protect themselves from assassination or coup. Ptolemy VIII's will would be the earliest example of this practice. However, it is quite possible that the text of the testament itself is authentic, but was only publicly disseminated in inscriptions by the Romans after they took over the country. Relations with Numidia Ptolemy VIII maintained a significant relationship with Numidia, highlighted by his close friendship with King Massinissa. This connection was established in 163 BC when Ptolemy VIII ascended to the throne of Cyrene. During this period, Massinissa was renowned for fostering relationships with Greek states and promoting a policy of Hellenization. Ptolemy VIII's interactions with Numidia were notably demonstrated by the dedication of a bust to Massinissa's son, Mastanabal, a distinguished athlete. The two rulers are believed to have met between 163 and 148 BC, with a plausible location being Massinissa's main residence at Cirta. While the exact details of their meeting remain uncertain, Athenaeus' references to Ptolemy VIII's Memoirs suggest the occurrence of a banquet hosted by Massinissa. During this event, Massinissa reportedly expressed astonishment at the Syracusans' preference for pet monkeys over children, an anecdote recounted by Ptolemy VIII. Spectacle and construction As king of Cyrene, Ptolemy VIII attempted to display the Hellenistic royal virtue of tryphe (luxury). The main priesthood in Cyrene was the position of the priest of Apollo. Ptolemy VIII assumed this position and discharged his duties, especially the hosting of feasts, extremely sumptuously. He also engaged in a wide-ranging construction project in the city. A large tomb west of Ptolemais seems to have been intended as his final resting place. ==Second reign (145–132/131 BC)==

and Wadjet, personifications of Upper and Lower Egypt, in the Temple of Horus at Edfu Ptolemy VI died on campaign in Syria in 145 BC. Ptolemy VI may have intended for his seven-year-old son, also named Ptolemy, to succeed him, but the Alexandrians called on Ptolemy VIII to return from Cyrene, assume the kingship and marry his older sister, Cleopatra II. The royal couple were incorporated into the dynastic cult as the Theoi Euergetai ('benefactor gods') - Cleopatra II having previously been one of the Theoi Philomētores with Ptolemy VI. Ptolemy VIII was inaugurated as pharaoh at Memphis in 144 or 143 BC, during which time the couple's only child, Ptolemy Memphites, was born. On his return to Alexandria in 145 BC, Ptolemy VIII is reported to have launched a purge of those who had opposed him and supported Ptolemy VI. This purge is luridly described in the literary sources, though it is sometimes difficult to determine whether specific anecdotes belong to this event or his later reconquest of Alexandria in 126 BC. Justin reports that Ptolemy VIII let his soldiers rampage through the streets of Alexandria, murdering indiscriminately, until he was "left alone with his soldiers in so large a city, and found himself a king, not of men, but of empty houses." and Kakergetēs ("Malefactor") - a pun on his official epithet Euergetēs ("Benefactor"). His accession also marked the end of Ptolemaic presence in the Aegean Sea. Within months of his accession, he had withdrawn all troops from Itanos, Thera, and Methana, the last remaining Ptolemaic bases in the Aegean. The Ptolemaic empire was now limited to Egypt, Cyprus, and Cyrene. By the late 140s BC, Ptolemy Memphites had been declared heir, Between 142 and 139 BC, Ptolemy VIII married Cleopatra III, daughter of Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II, and made her co-ruler, without divorcing Cleopatra II. According to Livy, Ptolemy VIII had initiated a relationship with his niece shortly after his accession which he now made official. Daniel Ogden has argued that the marriage to Cleopatra III may not have been planned from the outset, but a measure taken to prevent her from being married to someone else who might use that marriage in order to claim the throne. However, the new arrangement led to conflict with Cleopatra II. Apparently in response to this new marriage and with the support of Cleopatra II, an Athamanian mercenary captain formerly in Ptolemaic service, Galaestes, initiated a revolt. Galaestes had been a trusted officer under Ptolemy VI but had been forced into exile in 145 BC. In Greece, he gathered an army of other Ptolemaic exiles, then announced that he had a young son of Ptolemy VI in his care and crowned this boy as king. Galaestes attacked Ptolemy VIII, intending to put this child on the throne. Ptolemy VIII's mercenaries, whose pay was in arrears, nearly defected to the challenger, but their commander, Hierax, prevented this by paying their wages from his own money. By February 139 BC, Galaestes had been defeated and Ptolemy VIII had issued a decree affirming the rights and privileges of the Egyptian priesthood, in which he represented himself, Cleopatra II, and Cleopatra III as harmoniously ruling together. In the same year, Ptolemy VIII received a Roman embassy, led by Scipio Aemilianus, which was intended to effect a peaceful settlement of all affairs in the Eastern Mediterranean. The ancient sources emphasise the sumptuous greeting that the Romans received, mostly in order to contrast it with the austere behaviour of the Romans. By this point he was apparently enormously fat and was transported everywhere in a litter. ==Civil war (132–126 BC)==

In late 132 BC, the conflict between the royal siblings finally erupted into open warfare, with Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III on one side opposing Cleopatra II on the other. At first, Ptolemy retained control of Alexandria, but in late 131 BC the people of Alexandria rioted in favour of Cleopatra II and set fire to the royal palace. Ptolemy VIII, Cleopatra III, and their children escaped to Cyprus. Cleopatra II meanwhile had herself crowned as sole queen - the first time that a Ptolemaic woman had done this - and assumed the title of Thea Philomētōr Sōteira ("Mother-loving, Saviour Goddess"), which served to link her to her deceased husband Ptolemy VI and to the dynastic founder, Ptolemy I. Although Alexandria had sided with Cleopatra II and she tended to be supported by Greeks and Jews throughout the country, Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III were more popular with the native Egyptian population. Most of Egypt continued to acknowledge Ptolemy VIII as king. In the south of the country, however, a man named Harsiesi took advantage of the chaos to rebel - following in the footsteps of the rebellion of Hugronaphor and Ankhmakis (206-185 BC). Harsiesi probably declared himself Pharaoh and managed to seize control of Thebes in August or September of 131 BC. He was expelled in November and pursued by Paos, the strategos of the Thebaid, who was also an Egyptian. Both parties appealed to Rome, but the Senate did not intervene in the conflict. The resulting conflict in the Seleucid realm continued for years and meant that Seleucid intervention in opposition to Ptolemy VIII was no longer possible. In her absence, Ptolemy VIII finally reconquered Alexandria. This reconquest was accompanied by a bloody purge of the supporters of Cleopatra II. It is difficult to tell whether various anecdotes recording the bloody slaughter that Ptolemy VIII presided over belong to this event or to the earlier purge of 145 BC. ==Third reign (127/126–116 BC)==

After this, Ptolemy VIII began negotiations to reconcile with Cleopatra II and the Seleucid court. In 124 BC, Ptolemy VIII abandoned his support for Alexander II and agreed to support Demetrius II's son Antiochus VIII instead. He sealed the agreement by sending his second daughter by Cleopatra III, Tryphaena, to marry Antiochus VIII. Cleopatra II returned to Egypt from the Seleucid court and was once more acknowledged as co-regent with Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III. She appears along with them in papyrus documents from July 124 BC onwards. The reconciliation of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III with Cleopatra II was nevertheless a long process. To solidify their reconciliation and restore peace and prosperity to Egypt, the royal trio issued the Amnesty Decree in April 118 BC, which survives in a number of papyrus copies. This decree pardoned all crimes other than murder and temple robbing committed before 118 BC, encouraged refugees to return home and reclaim their property, waived all back-taxes, confirmed land grants made to soldiers during the civil war, affirmed temple land holdings and tax privileges, and instructed tax officials to use standardised weights and measures on pain of death. In addition, the decree established the jurisdiction of courts in legal disputes between Egyptians and Greeks. Henceforth, this would be determined by the language that the documents at the heart of the legal dispute were written in: the chrematistai (money-judges) would decide disputes over Greek documents, while the laokritai (folk-judges) would resolve disputes over Egyptian documents. The chrematistai were no longer allowed to drag Egyptians into their courts, as had apparently been occurring previously. ==Regime==

Ptolemaic dynastic cult with a portrait of Ptolemy VIII. Ptolemaic Egypt had a dynastic cult, which centred on the Ptolemaia festival and the annual priest of Alexander the Great, whose full title included the names of all the Ptolemaic ruling couples and appeared in official documents as part of the date formula. In October 170 BC when Ptolemy VIII first became co-regent with his brother and sister, who were already worshipped as the Theoi Philomētores ("Mother-loving Gods"), he was simply added to their cult as a third "Mother-loving God". Since the death of Arsinoe II, deceased Ptolemaic queens had been honoured with a separate dynastic cult of their own, including a separate priestess who marched in religious processions in Alexandria behind the priest of Alexander the Great and whose names also appeared in dating formulae. In 131 or 130 BC, Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III took advantage of this tradition, in their conflict against Cleopatra II, by establishing a new priesthood in honour of Cleopatra III. This new position was called the 'Hieros Polos (sacred foal) of Isis, Great Mother of the Gods' and was placed immediately after the priest of Alexander and ahead of all the priestesses of the previous queens in the order of precedence. The position was unlike the previous priesthoods in that it was established for a living queen rather than a deceased one and because the holder was a priest rather than a priestess. The position is not attested after 105 BC. Pharaonic ideology and traditional Egyptian religion attributed to Ptolemy VIII, glorifying his rule and describing his support of Egyptian gods. The stele was written in Egyptian hieroglyphs as well as Greek. From the beginning of the Ptolemaic dynasty, the Ptolemies had taken on the traditional role of the Egyptian pharaoh and pursued a symbiotic alliance with the Egyptian priestly elite. The degree of investment of the Ptolemies in this aspect of their rulership steadily increased over the third and second centuries BC. Ptolemy VIII nevertheless represents a new stage in this process, since in the conflict with Cleopatra II he proved more popular among his Egyptian subjects than among his Greek ones. In the Amnesty decree that announced the reconciliation of Ptolemy VIII, Cleopatra III, and Cleopatra II in 118 BC, the royal trio undertook to support reconstruction and repair work at temples throughout Egypt. They also promised to pay for the mummification and entombment of the Apis and Mnevis bulls. Despite this interest, Ptolemy VIII's reign saw a serious decline in the importance of Alexandria as an intellectual centre, in part due to the massacres that he carried out on taking control of the city in 145 BC and again in 126 BC. Among his victims on the first occasion were a number of prominent intellectuals, including Aristarchus of Samothrace and Apollodorus of Athens. Indian Ocean trade The Ptolemies had long retained a network of trading stations throughout the Red Sea, which enabled them to acquire gold, ivory, and elephants from the Horn of Africa. In the very last years of Ptolemy VIII's reign these sailors discovered that the annual reversal of the Indian Monsoon Current made it possible to cross the Indian Ocean by sea in summer and then return in winter. The first Greek to make this journey was Eudoxus of Cyzicus, who is reported to have travelled to India in 118 BC and again in 116 BC. The discovery opened up the possibility of direct seaborne trade with India. Previously, trade between the Mediterranean region and India had relied on intermediaries - sailors from the Arabian centres in the Gulf of Aden and the Persian Gulf and then desert caravans led by the Nabataeans to carry goods across the Arabian desert to the Mediterranean coast. Henceforth sailors from Ptolemaic Egypt began to make the full journey themselves. This marks the beginning of the Indian Ocean trade, which would become a major part of the Eurasian economic world system that operated from the first century BC until the fourth century AD. ==Marriages and issue==

Ptolemy VIII married his older sister, Cleopatra II, on his accession in 145 BC. They had one son: In 142 or 141 BC, Ptolemy VIII also married his niece Cleopatra III, daughter of Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II. They had a number of children: By a concubine, perhaps Eirene, Ptolemy VIII had further issue: ==Numbering==

The numbering of the Ptolemaic kings, like any Hellenistic monarchs, is a modern scholarly convention; at most, ancient sources informally distinguished between like-named kings by their epithets or nicknames, and sometimes numbered those if they repeated: thus, our Ptolemy VIII Euergetes is "[Ptolemy] Euergetes II" in the Canon of Ptolemy. Trying to synchronize the testimony of the narrative sources and epigraphic evidence, and misled by the appearance of additional royal names in the lists of deified Ptolemies, modern scholarship at one time numbered Ptolemy Eupator as a predecessor of Ptolemy VI Philometor (making the latter "Ptolemy VII Philometor") and Ptolemy Neos Philopator as a predecessor of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes (making the latter "Ptolemy IX Euergetes"). Once it was determined that the listing in the dynastic cult reflected the order of death and deification, not reign, and that Ptolemy Eupator was a son and co-regent of Ptolemy VI Philometor who never became sole or senior monarch, he ceased to be numbered, leaving his father as "Ptolemy VI Philometor" (making his uncle "Ptolemy VIII Euergetes"). However, it was only recently established that Ptolemy Neos Philopator was never sole or senior monarch (and probably never even co-regent); even if identified with the surviving son of Ptolemy VI Philometor (current research favors Ptolemy Memphites, son of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes, instead), and even if he had reigned in 145 BC (which he did not), since Ptolemy VIII Euergetes became king as co-regent (in 170 BC) and as sole monarch (in 164 BC) long before any of his nephews and sons, he would be "Ptolemy VII Euergetes". However, to avoid causing confusion with a large body of accumulated literature already labeling him "Ptolemy VIII Euergetes", most scholars have continued to refer to him with that numbering. Nevertheless, Ptolemy VIII Euergetes sometimes appears, correctly but potentially confusingly, as "Ptolemy VII Euergetes". To avoid potential confusion, it is recommended to append the epithet and/or nickname of Ptolemaic kings to their names in addition to the numbering. ==Gallery==

File:Edfu82.JPG|Nord ambulatory, temple Edfu File:Kom Ombo 0382.JPG|Temple Kom-Ombo File:Kom Ombo Tempel 03.jpg|Ptolemy VIII between Re-Horkhty and Sobek. Relief in the Temple of Kom Ombo File:Kom Ombo (6201773986).jpg|Ptolemy VIII and his wife Cleopatra II facing the gods Re-Horkhty Horus and Sobek File:Cleopatra II and III Kom Ombo Temple.jpg|Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III, Kom Ombo File:Wall relief Kom Ombo15.JPG|Wall relief of Cleopatra III, Cleopatra II and Ptolemy VIII before Horus File:Ptolemaios VIII.-Erogetes II. Karnak Temple.jpg|Ptolemy VIII. and a pantheon of gods before Amun and goddess Mut ==Notes==