Purposive approach

Plain meaning rule The plain meaning rule gained popularity during the 18th and 19th centuries as the courts took an increasingly strict view of the words within statutes. Under the plain meaning rule, courts give the words of a statute their natural or ordinary meaning. One of the leading statements of the plain meaning rule was made by Chief Justice Nicholas Conyngham Tindal in the Sussex Peerage case (1844), concerning whether Augustus d'Este succeeded to the titles of his father Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex, and in particular, whether the marriage of his father and mother was valid under the Royal Marriages Act 1772: A strict application of the plain meaning rule can sometimes result in "absurd" outcomes. Examples of the plain meaning rule producing absurd outcomes can be seen in the following cases: • In Whitely v Chappel (1868), a statute made it an offence "to impersonate any person entitled to vote". The defendant used the vote of a dead man. The statute relating to voting rights required a person to be living to be entitled to vote. The plain meaning rule was applied, and the defendant was thus acquitted. • In R v Harris (1836), the defendant had bitten off his victim's nose. Nevertheless, because the statute made it an offence "to stab cut or wound", the court held that under the plain meaning rule, the act of biting did not come within the meaning of stab cut or wound as these words implied an instrument had to be used. The court overturned the defendant's conviction. • In Fisher v Bell (1961), the Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1958 made it an offence to "offer for sale" an offensive weapon. The defendant had a flick knife displayed in his shop window with a price tag on it. The statute made it a criminal offence to "offer" such flick knives for sale. The court overturned his conviction because the display of goods in a shop is not an "offer" in the technical sense but an invitation to treat. The court applied the plain meaning rule of statutory interpretation. Golden rule The golden rule permits the courts to depart from the plain meaning rule if the meaning leads to consequences it considers to be absurd or ambiguous. This was propounded in Grey v Pearson Mischief rule In Construction of Statutes, Elmer Driedger defines the mischief rule as follows: ''Heydon's Case'' (1584) laid out the following statement of the principles underlying what would come to be called the "mischief rule": The mischief rule saw further development in Corkery v Carpenter (1951). In a decision of the Court of King's Bench, the Court had to decide whether a bicycle could be classified as a carriage. According to s. 12 of the Licensing Act 1872, a person found drunk in charge of a carriage on the highway can be arrested without a warrant. A man was arrested drunk in charge of a bicycle. According to the plain meaning rule, a bicycle is not a carriage. Under the mischief rule, the bicycle could constitute a carriage. The mischief the act was attempting to remedy was people being on the road on transport while drunk. Therefore, a bicycle could be classified as a carriage. In Smith v Hughes (1960), the defendant was charged under the Street Offences Act 1959, which made it an offence to solicit prostitution in a public place. The defendant was soliciting from within private premises (windows or on balconies), so they could be seen by the public without entering into the streets. The court applied the mischief rule, holding that the defendant's activities were within the mischief of the Act, and soliciting from within a house is soliciting and molesting of the public. Therefore, it is the same as if the defendant was outside on the street. In Royal College of Nursing of the UK v DHSS (1981), the Royal College of Nursing brought an action challenging the legality of the involvement of nurses in carrying out abortions. The Offences Against the Person Act 1861 made it an offence for any person to carry out an abortion. The Abortion Act 1967 provides an absolute defence for a medical practitioner provided certain well-known conditions are satisfied. Discoveries in medicine meant that surgery had more often been replaced with the administration of hormones, commonly by nurses. The courts were responsible for determining whether they were acting unlawfully, not being "medical practitioners" as defined under the Act. The House of Lords ruled that the Act was intended to provide for safe abortions and that nurses could carry out such abortions provided that a doctor had prescribed the treatment and accepted responsibility for its conduct throughout the procedure. ==Aids to interpretation==

Internal aids to statute interpretation Generally, prima facie must be given as a general rule of statutory interpretation. If the words are clear and free from ambiguity, there is no need to refer to other means of interpretation. However, if the words in the statute are vague and ambiguous, then internal aid may be consulted for interpretation. Judges should read a statute as a whole; what is not clear in one section may be explained in another section. Internal aids include the following: :*Context :*Title :**Long Title :**Short Title :*Preamble :*Headings :*Proviso :*Definition/interpretation Clause :*Conjunctive and Disjunctive Words :*Punctuation External aids to statute interpretation Aids external to a statute (i.e., not part of an act) can also be used as a recourse, including: :*Historical Settings :*Objects and Reason :*Text Books and Dictionaries :*International Convention :*Government Publications :**Committee Reports :**Other Documents :*Bill :*Select Committee Report :*Debate and Proceedings of the Legislature :*State of Things at the Time of the Passing of the Bill :*History of Legislation :*Extemporaneous Exposition :*Judicial Interpretation of Words == Australia ==

Section 15AA of the Acts Interpretation Act 1901 of Australia states that the interpretation that best achieves the purpose or object of a Commonwealth act is preferred to all other interpretations. Equivalent provisions are contained in the interpretation acts enacted in most Australian States and Territories. When determining the purpose of a statutory provision, courts ought to keep in mind the contexts for the provision at the outset rather than only when ambiguity or inconsistency exists. The statutory context 1) explanatory memoranda that are relevant to the statute and 2) reports of advisory bodies, such as law commissions, that created the need for the particular statutory provisions. (See CIC Insurance Limited v Bankstown Football Club Limited(1997) 187 CLR 384 at 408; also see Acts Interpretation Act 1901 (Cth), s15AB.) Whereas other common law countries embraced purposivism much earlier, the High Court of Australia has only been receptive to purposivism since the 1970s. Historically, Australian legalism (a variant of originalism) persevered for many years following the landmark decision in the Engineers Case. Sometimes considered aggressively textualist, Australian legalism emphasizes the importance of and attends only to the words in the statute when determining meaning. The Court remains entrenched in the tradition of textualism and original meaning more than the typical European, Canadian, or even American jurist; however, Justice McHugh refers to Australian legalism as "faint-hearted", as the Court's focus on textualism does not preclude its ability to evaluate extrinsic evidence. The move away from staunch textualism is primarily attributed to the "revolution" of the Mason Court. Mason Court The Mason Court's utilization of legislative debates marks the departure from strict Australian legalism. Along with the other radical innovations of the Mason Court, the use of extraneous materials has resulted in considerable tension between textualist history and the purposive future. While there has been some retrogressive action since the Mason Court, Australian constitutional interpretation is now arguably pluralistic, similar to that of the United States. According to Australian jurist Jeffrey Goldsworthy the Mason Court's "revolutionary" attitude is partially attributed to Mason, Deane, and Gaudron all receiving their education from the University of Sydney where they were exposed to "more pragmatic, consequentialist legal theories than many of their predecessors". ==Canada==

Statutory interpretation In Canada, the purposive approach was developed and expanded by Elmer Driedger in his 1974 book, The Construction of Statutes. Driedger referred to this approach not as "purposive", but as "the modern principle" of statutory interpretation. In many cases, the Supreme Court of Canada has endorsed this approach; it is now the dominant approach to statutory interpretation. In Re Rizzo & Rizzo Shoes Ltd, [1998] Justice Iacobucci, speaking for the whole court, wrote the following: Justice Iacobucci went on to cite section 10 of Ontario's quasi-constitutional Interpretation Act, which stated, "Every Act shall be deemed to be remedial ... and shall accordingly receive such fair, large and liberal construction and interpretation as will best ensure the attainment of the object of the Act according to its true intent, meaning and spirit." Similar provisions exist in the Interpretation Act of each province of Canada and at the federal level. The purposive approach was reinforced in Bell ExpressVu Limited Partnership v. Rex, [2002 where Justice Iacobucci, again for the whole court, reiterated that Driedger's rule is the overarching approach to statutory interpretation in Canada. Other philosophies, such as a strict interpretation of penal statutes, may apply in the case of an ambiguity, but only in the case of an ambiguity that arises following the application of the modern rule. The Supreme Court ruling in Free World Trust v. Électro Santé Inc. [2000set out "the test for patent infringement" and "the principles of purposive claim construction". Constitutional interpretation Purposive interpretation is also used in constitutional interpretation. In R. v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd., [1985, Justice Dickson, speaking for the majority of the court, wrote, at paragraph 116: ==England and Wales==

A 1969 report of the English Law Commission proposed that the English courts should adopt a purposive approach. That endorsement did much to boost the profile and credibility of the approach. However, several decades would still pass before it would win acceptance outside of narrow fields of English law (such as estoppels and absurdities), enshrined by cases such as the Earl of Oxford's case (1615). In 1982, Lord Diplock, giving the leading judgment for the House of Lords in the case of Catnic Components Ltd v Hill & Smith Ltd, held that patent claims should be given a purposive construction. Lord Clyde stated in 1998 that a purposive construction was "particularly appropriate where the validity of legislation has to be tested against the provisions of European law", because in that field, "it is proper to strain to give effect to the design and purpose behind the legislation". The leading case in which the purposive approach was adopted by the House of Lords was Pepper v Hart [1993] AC 593. This established the principle that when primary legislation is ambiguous and, specific criteria are satisfied, courts may refer to statements made in the House of Commons or the House of Lords to determine the intended meaning of the legislation. Before the ruling, such an action would have been seen as a breach of parliamentary privilege. The House of Lords held that courts could now take a purposive approach to interpret legislation when the traditional methods of statutory construction are in doubt or would result in an absurdity. To determine what Parliament intended, courts may consult all sources, including Hansard. Lord Griffiths stated: ==Israel==

Israel's legal community is largely purposivist and has rejected such methods of interpretation as narrow textualism and static historicism. Aharon Barak is Israel's best-known champion of purposivism. His particular form of purposivism includes a synthesis of subjective elements, such as the author's intent, with objective elements, such as textual evidence. Barak believes the text to be the source of purpose but is ready to go beyond the text in some circumstances to examine the subjective purposes of the text's author. Barak believes intentionalism is too limited in its assessment of subjectivity. Barak has encouraged Israel's judiciary to refer to the Canadian Supreme Court's purposive approach to Charter rights and its rights-forwarding orientation. Barak has written in support of purposive interpretation and applied it while serving as a Justice to the Supreme Court of Israel. In CA 165/82 Kibbutz Hatzor v Assessing Officer, 39(2) P.D 70, his judgment was seen as a turning point in interpreting tax law in Israel, establishing that a purposive approach was generally preferred to textualism in determining the meaning of the law. ==New Zealand==

Section 5(1) of the Interpretation Act 1999 states that Acts must be interpreted according to their purpose. ==United States==

American jurists Henry M. Hart, Jr. and Albert Sacks are considered early proponents of American purposivism. Their work helped to promote purposivism as a credible method of interpretation. Purposivism in the United States is considered a strain of originalism, alongside textualism and intentionalism. While the interpretation debate's current focus is between textualism and intentionalism, purposivism is gaining favor. Purposivism in the United States is used to interpret a statute with broadly worded text and a seemingly clear purpose. When employing purposivism, the court is concerned with understanding the law's purpose or "spirit". Once the purpose is identified, the text is then read accordingly. To determine and interpret the purpose of a statute, courts may consult extraneous aids. The following extraneous aids have been ranked from least authoritative to most authoritative: subsequent history, nonlegislator proponents of drafters, rejected proposals, colloquy on floor & hearing, sponsor statements, and committee reports. Each of these extraneous aids is given a weight corresponding to its position in the hierarchy. The academic literature indicates several variations of purposivism. For example, Abbe Gluck said, "There are different stripes of purposivists...” Jennifer M. Bandy stated, "Thus, Justice Breyer's strain of purposivism focuses on understanding the law in relation to both the people who passed it and the people who must live with it." Degrees of purposivism are sometimes referred to as 'strong' or 'weak'. Justice Stephen Breyer considered determining and interpreting the purpose of a statute paramount. An apt example of Breyer's approach might be his dissent in Medellín v. Texas (2008), where he faulted the court's construction of a treaty because "it looks for the wrong thing (explicit textual expression about self-execution) using the wrong standard (clarity) in the wrong place (the treaty language)"; in response, the Court "confess[ed] that we do think it rather important to look to the treaty language to see what it has to say about the issue. That is after all what the Senate looks to in deciding whether to approve the treaty". As opposed to Justice Breyer's strong form of purposivism, "weak purposivists" might consult the statute's purpose only as a device for interpreting vague provisions of its text and in no circumstances override the text. ==References==