Radiolaria

Radiolarians have many needle-like pseudopods supported by bundles of microtubules, which aid in the radiolarian's buoyancy. The cell nucleus and most other organelles are in the endoplasm, while the ectoplasm is filled with frothy vacuoles and lipid droplets, keeping them buoyant. The radiolarian can often contain symbiotic algae, especially zooxanthellae, which provide most of the cell's energy. Some of this organization is found among the heliozoa, but those lack central capsules and only produce simple scales and spines. Some radiolarians are known for their resemblance to regular polyhedra, such as the icosahedron-shaped Circogonia icosahedra pictured below. ==Taxonomy==

The radiolarians belong to the supergroup Rhizaria together with (amoeboid or flagellate) Cercozoa and (shelled amoeboid) Foraminifera. Traditionally the radiolarians have been divided into four groups—Acantharea, Nassellaria, Spumellaria and Phaeodarea. Phaeodaria is however now considered to be a Cercozoan. Nassellaria and Spumellaria both produce siliceous skeletons and were therefore grouped together in the group Polycystina. Despite some initial suggestions to the contrary, this is also supported by molecular phylogenies. The Acantharea produce skeletons of strontium sulfate and is closely related to a peculiar genus, Sticholonche (Taxopodida), which lacks an internal skeleton and was for long time considered a heliozoan. The Radiolaria can therefore be divided into two major lineages: Polycystina (Spumellaria + Nassellaria) and Spasmaria (Acantharia + Taxopodida). There are several higher-order groups that have been detected in molecular analyses of environmental data. Particularly, groups related to Acantharia and Spumellaria. These groups are so far completely unknown in terms of morphology and physiology and the radiolarian diversity is therefore likely to be much higher than what is currently known. The relationship between the Foraminifera and Radiolaria is also debated. Molecular trees support their close relationship—a grouping termed Retaria. But whether they are sister lineages or whether the Foraminifera should be included within the Radiolaria is not known. ==Biogeography==

In the diagram on the right, a Illustrates generalized radiolarian provinces and their relationship to water mass temperature (warm versus cool color shading) and circulation (gray arrows). Due to high-latitude water mass submergence under warm, stratified waters in lower latitudes, radiolarian species occupy habitats at multiple latitudes, and depths throughout the world oceans. Thus, marine sediments from the tropics reflect a composite of several vertically stacked faunal assemblages, some of which are contiguous with higher latitude surface assemblages. Sediments beneath polar waters include cosmopolitan deep-water radiolarians, as well as high-latitude endemic surface water species. Stars in (a) indicate the latitudes sampled, and the gray bars highlight the radiolarian assemblages included in each sedimentary composite. The horizontal purple bars indicate latitudes known for good radiolarian (silica) preservation, based on surface sediment composition. Data show that some species were extirpated from high latitudes but persisted in the tropics during the late Neogene, either by migration or range restriction (b). With predicted global warming, modern Southern Ocean species will not be able to use migration or range contraction to escape environmental stressors, because their preferred cold-water habitats are disappearing from the globe (c). However, tropical endemic species may expand their ranges toward midlatitudes. The color polygons in all three panels represent generalized radiolarian biogeographic provinces, as well as their relative water mass temperatures (cooler colors indicate cooler temperatures, and vice versa). File:Circogoniaicosahedra ekw.jpg|Circogonia icosahedra, radiolarian species shaped like a regular icosahedron File:Anthocyrtium hispidum Haeckel - Radiolarian (34986365113).jpg|Anthocyrtium hispidum Haeckel ==Radiolarian shells==

Radiolarians are unicellular predatory protists encased in elaborate globular shells (or "capsules"), usually made of silica and pierced with holes. Their name comes from the Latin for "radius". They catch prey by extending parts of their body through the holes. As with the silica frustules of diatoms, radiolarian shells can sink to the ocean floor when radiolarians die and become preserved as part of the ocean sediment. These remains, as microfossils, provide valuable information about past oceanic conditions. File:Mikrofoto.de-Radiolarien 6.jpg|Like diatoms, radiolarians come in many shapes File:Theocotylissa ficus Ehrenberg - Radiolarian (34638920262).jpg|Also like diatoms, radiolarian shells are usually made of silicate File:Acantharian radiolarian Xiphacantha (Haeckel).jpg|However acantharian radiolarians have shells made from strontium sulfate crystals File:Spherical radiolarian 2.jpg|Cutaway schematic diagram of a spherical radiolarian shell File:Cladococcus abietinus.jpg| Cladococcus abietinus {{Quote box |title = |quote = So I set to work on seeking a solution to the Morphogenesis Equations on a sphere. The theory was that a spherical organism was subject to diffusion across its surface membrane by an alien substance, eg sea-water. The Equations were: :\frac{\partial \mathbf{U}}{\partial t} = \phi(\nabla^2) \mathbf{U} + G \mathbf{U}^2 - H\mathbf{U}V, :V = \mathbf{U}^2 The function \mathbf{U}, taken to be the radius vector from the centre to any point on the surface of the membrane, was argued to be representable as a series of normalised Legendre functions. The algebraic solution of the above equations ran to some 30 pages in my Thesis and are therefore not reproduced here. They are written in full in the book entitled "Morphogenesis" which is a tribute to Turing, edited by P. T. Saunders, published by North Holland, 1992. The algebraic solution of the equations revealed a family of solutions, corresponding to a parameter n, taking values 2, 4. 6. When I had solved the algebraic equations, I then used the computer to plot the shape of the resulting organisms. Turing told me that there were real organisms corresponding to what I had produced. He said that they were described and depicted in the records of the voyages of HMS Challenger in the 19th Century. I solved the equations and produced a set of solutions which corresponded to the actual species of Radiolaria discovered by HMS Challenger in the 19th century. That expedition to the Pacific Ocean found eight variations in the growth patterns. These are shown in the following figures. The essential feature of the growth is the emergence of elongated "spines" protruding from the sphere at regular positions. Thus the species comprised two, six, twelve, and twenty, spine variations. |source = Bernard Richards, 2006 |align = right |width = 450px |border = }} Diversity and morphogenesis Bernard Richards worked under the supervision of Alan Turing (1912–1954) at Manchester as one of Turing's last students, helping to validate Turing's theory of morphogenesis. "Turing was keen to take forward the work that D'Arcy Thompson had published in On Growth and Form in 1917". File:Cromyatractus tetracelyphus.jpg| Cromyatractus tetracelyphus with 2 spines File:Circopus sexfurcus.jpg| Circopus sexfurcus with 6 spines File:Circopurus octahedrus.jpg| Circopurus octahedrus with 6 spines and 8 faces File:Circogonia icosahedra.jpg| Circogonia icosahedra with 12 spines and 20 faces File:Circorrhegma dodecahedra.jpg| Circorrhegma dodecahedra with 20 (incompletely drawn) spines and 12 faces File:Cannocapsa stethoscopium.jpg| Cannocapsa stethoscopium with 20 spines The gallery shows images of the radiolarians as extracted from drawings made by the German zoologist and polymath Ernst Haeckel in 1887. • • Richards, Bernard (2005-2006) "Turing, Richards and Morphogenesis", The Rutherford Journal, Volume 1. ==Fossil record==

The earliest known radiolaria date to the very start of the Cambrian period, appearing in the same beds as the first small shelly fauna—they may even be terminal Precambrian in age. They have significant differences from later radiolaria, with a different silica lattice structure and few, if any, spikes on the test. About ninety percent of known radiolarian species are extinct. The skeletons, or tests, of ancient radiolarians are used in geological dating, including for oil exploration and determination of ancient climates. Some common radiolarian fossils include Actinomma, Heliosphaera and Hexadoridium. ==See also==