Raymond Cattell

Cattell's research was mainly in personality, abilities, motivations, and innovative multivariate research methods and statistical analysis (especially his many refinements to exploratory factor analytic methodology). In his personality research, he is best remembered for his factor-analytically derived 16-factor model of normal personality structure, These "global trait" constructs are the precursors of the currently popular Big Five (FFM) model of personality. Cattell's research led to further advances, such as distinguishing between state and trait measures (e.g., state-trait anxiety), ranging on a continuum from immediate transitory emotional states, through longer-acting mood states, dynamic motivational traits, and also relatively enduring personality traits. Cattell also conducted empirical studies into developmental changes in personality trait constructs across the lifespan. In the cognitive abilities domain, Cattell researched a wide range of abilities, but is best known for the distinction between fluid and crystallized intelligence. and the Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT) which was designed to provide a completely non-verbal measure of intelligence like that now seen in the Raven's. The Culture Fair Intelligence Scales were intended to minimize the influence of cultural or educational background on the results of intelligence tests. In regard to statistical methodology, in 1960 Cattell founded the Society of Multivariate Experimental Psychology (SMEP), and its journal Multivariate Behavioral Research, in order to bring together, encourage, and support scientists interested in multi-variate research. He was an early and frequent user of factor analysis (a statistical procedure for finding underlying factors in data). Cattell also developed new factor analytic techniques, for example, by inventing the scree test, which uses the curve of latent roots to judge the optimal number of factors to extract. He also developed a new factor analysis rotation procedure—the "Procrustes" or non-orthogonal rotation, designed to let the data itself determine the best location of factors, rather than requiring orthogonal factors. Additional contributions include the Coefficient of Profile Similarity (taking account of shape, scatter, and level of two score profiles); P-technique factor analysis based on repeated measurements of a single individual (sampling of variables, rather than sampling of persons); dR-technique factor analysis for elucidating change dimensions (including transitory emotional states, and longer-lasting mood states); the Taxonome program for ascertaining the number and contents of clusters in a data set; the Rotoplot program for attaining maximum simple structure factor pattern solutions. the Basic Data Relations Box (assessing dimensions of experimental designs), the group syntality construct ("personality" of a group), the triadic theory of cognitive abilities, the Ability Dimension Analysis Chart (ADAC), and Multiple Abstract Variance Analysis (MAVA), with "specification equations" to embody genetic and environmental variables and their interactions. As Lee J. Cronbach at Stanford University stated: ==Biography==

England Raymond Cattell was born on 20 March 1905 in Hill Top, West Bromwich, a small town in England near Birmingham where his father's family was involved in inventing new parts for engines, automobiles and other machines. Thus, his growing up years were a time when great technological and scientific ideas and advances were taking place and this greatly influenced his perspective on how a few people could actually make a difference in the world. He wrote: "1905 was a felicitous year in which to be born. The airplane was just a year old. The Curies and Rutherford in that year penetrated the heart of the atom and the mystery of its radiations, Alfred Binet launched the first intelligence test, and Einstein, the theory of relativity. When Cattell was about five years old, his family moved to Torquay, Devon, in the south-west of England, where he grew up with strong interests in science and spent a lot of time sailing around the coastline. He was the first of his family (and the only one in his generation) to attend university: in 1921, he was awarded a scholarship to study chemistry at King's College, London, where he obtained a BSc (Hons) degree with 1st-class honors at age 19 years. While studying physics and chemistry at university he learned from influential people in many other fields, who visited or lived in London. He writes: As he observed first-hand the terrible destruction and suffering after World War I, Cattell was increasingly attracted to the idea of applying the tools of science to the serious human problems that he saw around him. He stated that in the cultural upheaval after WWI, he felt that his laboratory table had begun to seem too small and the world's problems so vast. In 1939, Cattell was honored for his outstanding contributions to psychological research with conferral of the prestigious higher doctorate D.Sc. from the University of London. During his three years at Exeter, Cattell courted and married Monica Rogers, whom he had known since his boyhood in Devon and they had a son together. She left him about four years later. During the last two decades of his life in Hawaii, Cattell continued to publish a variety of scientific articles, as well as books on motivation, the scientific use of factor analysis, two volumes of personality and learning theory, the inheritance of personality, and co-edited a book on functional psychological testing, as well as a complete revision of his highly renowned Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology. His will provided for his remaining funds to build a school for underprivileged children in Cambodia. He was an agnostic. ==Scientific orientation==

When Cattell began his career in psychology in the 1920s, he felt that the domain of personality was dominated by speculative ideas that were largely intuitive with little/no empirical research basis. Cattell found that constructs used by early psychological theorists tended to be somewhat subjective and poorly defined. For example, after examining over 400 published papers on the topic of "anxiety" in 1965, Cattell stated: "The studies showed so many fundamentally different meanings used for anxiety and different ways of measuring it, that the studies could not even be integrated." Early personality theorists tended to provide little objective evidence or research bases for their theories. Cattell wanted psychology to become more like other sciences, whereby a theory could be tested in an objective way that could be understood and replicated by others. In Cattell's words: :"Psychology appeared to be a jungle of confusing, conflicting, and arbitrary concepts. These pre-scientific theories doubtless contained insights which still surpass in refinement those depended upon by psychiatrists or psychologists today. But who knows, among the many brilliant ideas offered, which are the true ones? Some will claim that the statements of one theorist are correct, but others will favour the views of another. Then there is no objective way of sorting out the truth except through scientific research." Emeritus Professor Arthur B. Sweney, an expert in psychometric test construction, summed up Cattell's methodology: :"[Cattell] was without exception the one man who made the most major strides in systematizing the field of behavioral science from all of its diverse facets into a real science based on empirical, replicable and universal principles. Seldom has psychology had such a determined, systematic explorer dedicated not only to the basic search for scientific knowledge but also to the need to apply science for the benefit of all." Also, according to Sheehy (2004, page 62), :"Cattell made fundamental contributions to our understanding of ability and the structure of personality." In 1994, Cattell was one of 52 signatories of "Mainstream Science on Intelligence," an editorial written by Linda Gottfredson and published in the Wall Street Journal. In the letter the signers, some of whom were intelligence researchers, defended the publication of the book The Bell Curve. There was sharp pushback on the letter, with a number of signers (not Cattell) having received funding from white supremacist organizations. His works can be categorized or defined as part of cognitive psychology, due to his nature to measure every psychological aspect especially personality aspect. ==Multivariate research==

Rather than pursue a "univariate" research approach to psychology, studying the effect that a single variable (such as "dominance") might have on another variable (such as "decision-making"), Cattell pioneered the use of multivariate experimental psychology (the analysis of several variables simultaneously). ==Factor analysis==

Cattell noted that in the hard sciences such as chemistry, physics, astronomy, as well as in medical science, unsubstantiated theories were historically widespread until new instruments were developed to improve scientific observation and measurement. In the 1920s, Cattell worked with Charles Spearman who was developing the new statistical technique of factor analysis in his effort to understand the basic dimensions and structure of human abilities. Factor analysis became a powerful tool to help uncover the basic dimensions underlying a confusing array of surface variables within a particular domain. While working at the University of London with Spearman exploring the number and nature of human abilities, Cattell postulated that factor analysis could be applied to other areas beyond the domain of abilities. In particular, Cattell was interested in exploring the basic taxonomic dimensions and structure of human personality. ==Personality theory==

In order to apply factor analysis to personality, Cattell believed it was necessary to sample the widest possible range of variables. He specified three kinds of data for comprehensive sampling, to capture the full range of personality dimensions: • Life data (or L-data), which involves collecting data from the individual's natural, everyday life behaviors, measuring their characteristic behavior patterns in the real world. This could range from number of traffic accidents or number of parties attended each month, to grade point average in school or number of illnesses or divorces. • Experimental data (or T-data) which involves reactions to standardized experimental situations created in a lab where a subject's behavior can be objectively observed and measured. • Questionnaire data (or Q-data), which involves responses based on introspection by the individual about their own behavior and feelings. He found that this kind of direct questioning often measured subtle internal states and viewpoints that might be hard to see or measure in external behavior. In order for a personality dimension to be called "fundamental and unitary," Cattell believed that it needed to be found in factor analyses of data from all three of these measurement domains. Thus, Cattell constructed measures of a wide range of personality traits in each medium (L-data; Q-data; T-data). He then conducted a programmatic series of factor analyses on the data derived from each of the three measurement media in order to elucidate the dimensionality of human personality structure. In order to measure these trait constructs across different age ranges, Cattell constructed (Q-data) instruments that included the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) for adults, the High School Personality Questionnaire (HSPQ) now named the Adolescent Personality Questionnaire (APQ), and the Children's Personality Questionnaire (CPQ). Cattell also constructed the (T-data) Objective Analytic Battery (OAB) that provided measures of the 10 largest personality trait factors extracted factor analytically, as well as objective (T-data) measures of dynamic trait constructs such as the Motivation Analysis Test (MAT), the School Motivation Analysis Test (SMAT), and the Children's Motivation Analysis Test (CMAT). In order to measure trait constructs within the abnormal personality sphere, Cattell constructed the Clinical Analysis Questionnaire (CAQ) Part 1 of the CAQ measures the 16PF factors, While Part 2 measures an additional 12 abnormal (psychopathological) personality trait dimensions. The CAQ was later re-badged as the PsychEval Personality Questionnaire (PEPQ). Also within the broadly conceptualized personality domain, Cattell constructed measures of mood states and transitory emotional states, including the Eight State Questionnaire (8SQ) In addition, Cattell was at the forefront in constructing the Central Trait-State Kit. From the very beginning of his academic career, Cattell reasoned that, as in other scientific domains like intelligence, there might be an additional, higher level of organization within personality which would provide a structure for the many primary traits. When he factor analyzed the intercorrelations of the 16 primary trait measures themselves, he found no fewer than five "second-order" or "global factors", now commonly known as the Big Five. Thus, "global" Extraversion is fundamentally defined by the primary traits that are grouped together factor analytically, and, moving in the opposite direction, the second-order Extraversion factor gives conceptual meaning and structure to these primary traits, identifying their focus and function in human personality. These two levels of personality structure can provide an integrated understanding of the whole person, with the "global traits" giving an overview of the individual's functioning in a broad-brush way, and the more-specific primary trait scores providing an in-depth, detailed picture of the individual's unique trait combinations (Cattell's "Depth Psychometry" page 71). Thus, the 16 primary trait measures plus the five major second-stratum factors have been used in educational settings to study and predict achievement motivation, learning or cognitive style, creativity, and compatible career choices; in work or employment settings to predict leadership style, interpersonal skills, creativity, conscientiousness, stress-management, and accident-proneness; in medical settings to predict heart attack proneness, pain management variables, likely compliance with medical instructions, or recovery pattern from burns or organ transplants; in clinical settings to predict self-esteem, interpersonal needs, frustration tolerance, and openness to change; and, in research settings to predict a wide range of behavioral proclivities such as aggression, conformity, and authoritarianism. Cattell's programmatic multivariate research which extended from the 1940s through the 70's resulted in several books that have been widely recognized as identifying fundamental taxonomic dimensions of human personality and motivation and their organizing principles: • The Description and Measurement of Personality (1946) • An Introduction to Personality Study (1949) • Personality: A Systematic, Theoretical, and Factual Study (1950) • Factor Analysis (1952) • Personality and Motivation Structure and Measurement (1957) • The Meaning and Measurement of Neuroticism and Anxiety (1961) • Personality Factors in Objective Test Devices (1965) • The Scientific Analysis of Personality (1965) • Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology (1966) • Objective Personality and Motivation Tests (1967) • Handbook for the Sixteen Personality Questionnaire (16PF) (1970) • Personality and Mood by Questionnaire (1973) • Motivation and Dynamic Structure (1975) • Handbook of Modern Personality Theory (1977) • The Scientific Analysis of Personality and Motivation (1977) • Personality Theory in Action: Handbook for the O-A Test Kit (1978) • The Scientific use of Factor Analysis in Behavioral and Life Sciences (1978) • Personality and Learning Theory: Volumes 1 & 2 (1979) • Structured Personality-Learning Theory (1983) • Human Motivation and the Dynamic Calculus (1985) • Psychotherapy by Structured Learning Theory (1987) • Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology (1988) The books listed above document a programmatic series of empirical research studies based on quantitative personality data derived from objective tests (T-data), from self-report questionnaires (Q-data), and from observer ratings (L-data). They present a theory of personality development over the human life span, including effects on the individual's behavior from family, social, cultural, biological, and genetic influences, as well as influences from the domains of motivation and ability. As Hans Eysenck at the Institute of Psychiatry, London remarked:"Cattell has been one of the most prolific writers in psychology since Wilhelm Wundt....According to the Citation Index, he is one of the ten most cited psychologists, and this is true with regard to not only citations in social science journals but also those in science journals generally. Of the two hundred and fifty most cited scientists, only three psychologists made the grade, namely, Sigmund Freud in the first place, then the reviewer [H.J. Eysenck], and then Cattell. Thus there is no question that Cattell has made a tremendous impression on psychology and science in general." He was a controversial figure due in part to his friendships with, and intellectual respect for, white supremacists and neo-Nazis. ==Views on race and eugenics==

William H. Tucker and Barry Mehler have criticized Cattell based on his writings about evolution and political systems. They argue that Cattell adhered to a mixture of eugenics and a new religion of his devising which he eventually named Beyondism and proposed as "a new morality from science". Tucker notes that Cattell thanked the prominent neo-Nazi and white supremacist ideologues Roger Pearson, Wilmot Robertson, and Revilo P. Oliver in the preface to his Beyondism, and that a Beyondist newsletter with which Cattell was involved favorably reviewed Robertson's book The Ethnostate. Cattell claimed that a diversity of cultural groups was necessary to allow that evolution. He speculated about natural selection based on both the separation of groups and also the restriction of "external" assistance to "failing" groups from "successful" ones. This included advocating for "educational and voluntary birth control measures"—i.e., by separating groups and limiting excessive growth of failing groups. John Gillis argued in his biography of Cattell that, although some of Cattell's views were controversial, Tucker and Mehler exaggerated and misrepresented his views by taking quotes out of context and referring to outdated writings. Gillis maintained that Cattell was not friends with white supremacists and described Hitler's ideas as "lunacy." accusing Cattell of being sympathetic to racist and fascist ideas. Mehler claimed that "it is unconscionable to honor this man whose work helps to dignify the most destructive political ideas of the twentieth century". A blue-ribbon committee was convened by the APA to investigate the legitimacy of the charges. Before the committee reached a decision, Cattell issued an open letter to the committee saying "I believe in equal opportunity for all individuals, and I abhor racism and discrimination based on race. Any other belief would be antithetical to my life's work" and saying that "it is unfortunate that the APA announcement ... has brought misguided critics' statements a great deal of publicity." Cattell refused the award, withdrawing his name from consideration, and the committee was disbanded. Cattell died months later at the age of 92. In 1984, Cattell said that: "The only reasonable thing is to be noncommittal on the race question – that's not the central issue, and it would be a great mistake to be sidetracked into all the emotional upsets that go on in discussions of racial differences. We should be quite careful to dissociate eugenics from it – eugenics' real concern should be with individual differences." Richard L. Gorsuch (1997) wrote (in a letter to the American Psychological Foundation, para. 4) that: "The charge of racism is 180 degrees off track. [Cattell] was the first one to challenge the racial bias in tests and to attempt to reduce that problem." ==Selected publications==

Raymond Cattell's papers and books are the 7th most highly referenced in peer-reviewed psychology journals over the past century. • Cattell, R. B. (1943). The description of personality: Basic traits resolved into clusters. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38, pages 476–506. (1941 citations) • Cattell, R. B. (1943). The measurement of adult intelligence. Psychological Bulletin, 40, pages 153–193. (1087 citations) • Cattell, R. B. (1946). Description and Measurement of Personality. New York: World Book. (2205 citations) • Cattell, R. B. (1947). Confirmation and clarification of primary personality factors. Psychometrika, 12, pages 197–220. (724 citations) • Cattell, R. B. (1950). Personality: A Systematic Theoretical and Factual Study. New York: McGraw Hill. (1690 citations) • Cattell, R. B. (1952). Factor Analysis: An Introduction and Manual for the Psychologist and Social Scientist. Oxford, United Kingdom: Harper. (1510 citations) • Cattell, R. B. (1957). Personality and Motivation Structure and Measurement. New York: World Book. (3232 citations)** • Cattell, R. B. (1963). Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 54, pages 1–22. (4299 citations) • Cattell, R. B. & Scheier, I. H. (1961). The Meaning and Measurement of Neuroticism and Anxiety. New York: Ronald Press. (1798 citations) • Hurley, J. R., & Cattell, R. B. (1962). The Procrustes program: Producing direct rotation to test a hypothesized factor structure. Behavioral Science, 7, 258-262. (502 citations) • Cattell, R. B. (1965). Factor analysis: An introduction to essentials I: The purpose and underlying models. Biometrics, 21, pages 190–215. (767 citations) • Horn, J. L. & Cattell, R. B. (1966). Refinement and test of the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 57, pages 253–270. (2671 citations) • Cattell, R. B. (1966). The Scree Test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1(2), pages 245–276. (18331 citations) • Cattell, R. B., & Jaspars, J. (1967). A general plasmode (No. 30-10-5-2) for factor analytic exercises and research. Multivariate Behavioral Research Monographs, 67, 1-212. (390 citations) • Horn, J. L. & Cattell, R. B. (1967). Age differences in fluid and crystallized intelligence. Acta Psychologica, 26, pages 107–129. (2122 citations) • Cattell, R. B. & Butcher, H. J. (1968). The Prediction of Achievement and Creativity. Oxford, United Kingdom: Bobbs-Merrill. (656 citations) • Cattell, R. B. (1971). Abilities: Their Structure, Growth, and Action. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. (4974 citations) • Cattell, R. B. (1973). Personality and Mood by Questionnaire. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass. (1168 citations) • Cattell, R. B. & Vogelmann, S. (1977). A comprehensive trial of the scree and KG criteria for determining the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 12, pages 289–335. (748 citations) • Cattell, R. B. & Kline, P. (1977). The Scientific Analysis of Personality and Motivation. New York: Academic. (2340 citations) • Cattell, R. B. (1978). The Scientific Use of Factor Analysis in Behavioral and Life Sciences. New York: plenum. (3579 citations) • Cattell, R. B. (1987). Intelligence: Its Structure, Growth, and Action. Amsterdam: Elsevier. (1973 citations) • Cattell, R. B. (1988). The meaning and strategic use of factor analysis. In Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology. New York: Plenum. (1106 citations) • Cattell, R. B. and Cattell, H. E. P. (1995) Personality structure and the new fifth edition of the 16PF. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 6, 926-937. (315 citations) • Nesselroade, J. R. & Cattell, R. B. (2013). Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology (Rev. 3rd ed.) New York: Plenum. (1786 citations) ==Comprehensive list of Cattell's books==