Austria In a few "Crown lands" of the Austrian Empire, one seat in
federal state parliaments was reserved for the rector of the capital's university, notably: Graz in
Styria,
Innsbruck in
Tyrol, and Vienna; in
Bohemia, two rectors had seats in the equivalent state diet. Today, Austrian universities are headed from the rectorate (or vice-chancellor's office). This consists of a rector (vice-chancellor), who is elected by the university council, and 3-5 additional vice-rectors (pro-vice-chancellors). The rector is the CEO of the university.
Belgium The head of Belgian universities is called a
president,
recteur (French-speaking universities),
rector (Dutch-speaking universities), previously
rector magnificus (men) or
rectrix magnifica (women).
Czech Republic The heads of
Czech universities are called the
rektor. The rector acts in the name of the university and decides the university's affairs unless prohibited by law. The rector is nominated by the University Academic Senate and appointed by the
President of the Czech Republic. The nomination must be agreed by a
simple majority of all senators, while a dismissal must be agreed by at least three fifths of all senators. The vote to elect or repeal a rector is secret. The term of office is four years and a person may hold it for at most two consecutive terms. The rector appoints vice-rectors (
pro-rektor), who act as deputies to the extent determined by the Rector. Rectors' salaries are determined directly by the Minister of Education. Among the most important rectors of Czech universities were reformer
Jan Hus, physician
Jan Jesenius, theologian
Rodrigo de Arriaga and representative of
Enlightenment Josef Vratislav Monse.
Jiřina Popelová (
Palacký University of Olomouc) became the first female Rector in 1950. The rectors are addressed "Your Magnificence Rector" (
"Vaše Magnificence pane rektore").
Denmark In Danish,
rektor is the title used in referring to the heads of universities,
gymnasiums, schools of commerce and construction, etc. Generally
rektor may be used for the head of any educational institution above the primary school level, where the head is commonly referred to as a 'skoleinspektør' (Headmaster; Inspector of the school). In universities, the second-ranked official of governance is known as
prorektor.
Finland In Finland, the head of a primary school or secondary schools is called a rector (
rehtori) provided the school is of sufficient size in terms of faculty and students, otherwise the title is headmaster (
koulunjohtaja). The head of some Finnish universities is called chancellor (
kansleri).
Germany The head of a German university is called either
Rektor (rector) or
Präsident (president). The difference is usually that a
Rektor is elected by the Senate from among the professors of the university (which is the traditional method of choosing the head of a German university), while a
Präsident need be neither a professor nor a member of the university (or of any university) prior to appointment. The
Rektor is traditionally addressed as
Magnifizenz. The rector forms a collegiate leadership body together with the pro-rectors (
Prorektor) and the university's chancellor (
Kanzler) - collectively the rectorate (
Rektorat). The rectorate is usually aided by several advisors (
Referent) who provide advice on specific topics and take over responsibilities in the preparation of decisions, roughly comparable to an associate Pro-Vice-Chancellor in the British academic system.
Rektor is also the official title of the principal/headmaster of an elementary school; the deputies are called
Konrektor. In earlier times, the title
Rektor was also used for the head of a
Gymnasium. Today, these teachers usually hold the title of
Oberstudiendirektor ("Senior Director of Studies").
Iceland The
rektor is term used for the headmaster or headmistress of Icelandic universities and of some
gymnasia.
Italy ,
Ivano Dionigi, with then Prime Minister of Italy
Matteo Renzi, in 2015. In
Italy the rector is the head of the university and
Rappresentante Legale (Legal representative) of the university. The rector is elected by an electoral body composed of all
Professori ordinari ed associati (full and associate professors), the two highest ranks of the Italian university faculty, all the
Ricercatori (lowest rank of departments) and representatives of the staff, students and PhD students. The rector can appoint one pro-rettore vicario (acting as the vice-rector) and other pro-rettori with specific fields of competence, for instance education, international cooperation, equal opportunities, research. The term of a
rettore is now six years, in accordance with the new national regulation and the
statuto (constitution of the university). The Rettore is styled and formally greeted as
Magnifico Rettore (Magnificent Rector).
Kazakhstan A rector () in Kazakhstan is the chief executive and legal head of a university or other higher‑education institution. The rector oversees academic, administrative, and financial management and typically chairs the institution's collegial governing body, such as an Academic Council, though exact governance structures depend on each university's charter. Rector positions are regulated under national legislation, including Article 44 of the Law on Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan, and institutional statutes. Public university rectors are generally nominated by a university board or academic council and approved by the relevant governmental authority, with procedural details set by each institution's internal rules. Because higher‑education institutions enjoy institutional autonomy, the powers, governance role, and tenure of rectors can vary between universities. In 2024, policy reforms by the
Ministry of Science and Higher Education limited rectors to a maximum of two consecutive three-year terms (six years total), whereas previously terms and reappointments were set by individual university charters, with some rectors serving 10–15 years or more. Under their authority, rectors may appoint vice‑rectors to oversee specific areas such as academic programs, research, or administration. Rectors also act as the legal representative of the institution and interact with state authorities, other institutions, and external organizations.
Netherlands In the Netherlands, the rector is the principal of a high school. The rector is supported by conrectors (deputy rectors who can take his place). In Dutch universities, the
Rector Magnificus is responsible for the scientific vision and quality of the university. The
rector magnificus is one of the members of the executive board of a university. The
rector magnificus is a
full professor. The ceremonial responsibilities of the
rector magnificus are to open the
academic year, and to preside over the ceremonial PhD defenses and inaugural lectures of newly appointed (full) professors. During PhD defenses the rector is usually replaced by another full professor who is acting rector during the session.
Norway A rector (), in the context of academia, is the democratically elected head of a university or university college. The rector is the highest official of the university, and is traditionally elected among the institution's professorship, originally by all the (full) professors and in modern times by all academic employees, the students and the non-academic employees. The rector is traditionally the head of the
Collegium Academicum, which has been renamed the university board in the 2000s, and is also the university's chief executive and ceremonial head. The elected deputy of the rector is known as pro-rector (). Some institutions also have vice rectors, who are appointed by the rector and subordinate to the rector and pro-rector. Traditionally, Norwegian universities and colleges had democratic elections for the rector and pro-rector positions. Since 2016, the institutions may choose to have an elected or an appointed rector. Universities and colleges usually have a
university director or
college director, who is the head of the administration (i.e., the non-academic employees) and subordinate to the rectorate.
Poland In
Poland, the rector () serves as the elected head of a university or university college. In military and military-type higher education institutions, the equivalent position is referred to as commander (). The rector is the highest official of the
university. Rector of the university can be a person with at least a
doctoral degree, employed by the university as the main place of work. Rector is referred to as Jego/Jej Magnificencja (en. His/Her Magnificence) (abbreviation: JM). The outfit of rector is red or purple coat (robe) with
ermine fur, often with a
scepter and a decorative string of symbols of the university. Deputy rectors () at official ceremonies are dressed in the same
gown, but with fewer decorations (usually without the fur). Rectors of military universities wear only an officer's uniform and a necklace with symbols of the university. As of 2008, the term of office of the rector of public universities lasts for four years (previously three years), beginning on 1 September in an election year and ending on 31 August of the year in which the term ends. A person may not be elected to serve as rector for more than two consecutive terms. In the case of private universities the rule is regulated by
university statute.
Portugal In
Portugal, the Rector (
Portuguese:
Reitor male or
Reitora female), frequently addressed as
Magnificent Rector (
Magnífico Reitor in Portuguese), is the elected highest official of each
university, governing and representing the university. Those universities whose foundation has been historically approved by the Pope, as e.g. the rector of the
University of Coimbra, the oldest Portuguese university, is referred to as ''Magnífico Reitor (Rector's name)'' ("Rector Magnificus (Rector's Name)"). The others are referred to as
Excelentíssimo Senhor Reitor. The rector of a university is helped by vice-rectors and by pro-rectors, with different responsibilities. Until 1974, the director of each
lyceum (high school) also had the title of Rector.
Russia In
Russia, the rector () as a term for a university chancellor introduced in 1961. Before 1961 university chancellor had title "director" ().
Spain In Spain, all Rectors must be addressed as
Señor Rector Magnífico according to the law (Ley Orgánica 4/2007), but the Rector of the
University of Salamanca, the oldest on the Iberian Peninsula, is usually styled according to academic protocol as ''Excelentísimo e Ilustrísimo Señor Profesor Doctor
Don (Rector's name), Rector Magnífico de la Universidad de Salamanca'' ("The Most Excellent and Most Illustrious Lord Professor Doctor Don (Rector's name),
Rector Magnificus of the University of Salamanca"). In
Spain,
Rector or
Rector Magnífico (magnific rector, from Latin
Rector Magnificus) is the highest administrative and educational office in a university, equivalent to that of president or chancellor of an English-speaking university but holding all the powers of a vice-chancellor; they are thus the head of the academy at universities. Formally styled as
Excelentísimo e Ilustrísimo Señor Profesor Doctor Don N, Rector Magnífico de la Universidad de X ("Most Excellent and Illustrious Lord Professor Doctor Don N, Rector Magnificus of the University of X"), it is an office of high dignity within Spanish society, usually being highly respected. It is not strange to see them appear in the media, especially when some academic-related subject is being discussed and their opinion is requested. Spanish rectors are chosen from within the body of university full
professors (
Catedráticos in Spanish); it is compulsory for anyone aspiring to become a rector to have been a doctor for at least six years before his election, and to have achieved professor status, holding it in the same university for which he is running. Usually, when running for election, the rector will need to have chosen the vice-rectors (
vicerrectores in Spanish), who will occupy several sub-offices in the university. Rectors are elected directly by free and secret universal suffrage of all the members of the university, including students, lecturers, readers, researchers, and civil servants. However, the weight of the vote in each academic sector is different: the total student vote usually represents 20% of the whole, no matter how many students there are; the votes of the entire group made up of professors and readers (members of what used to be known as the
Claustro (
cloister)) usually count for about 40-50% of the total; lecturers, researchers (including Ph.D. students and others) and non-doctoral teachers, about 20% of the total; and the remainder (usually some 5-10%) is left for non-scholarly workers (people in administration, etc.) in the university. Spanish law allows those percentages to be changed according to the situation of each university, or even not to have a direct election system. Indeed, in a few universities the Rector is chosen indirectly; the members of the modern
Claustro (a sort of electoral college or parliament in which all the above-mentioned groups are represented) is chosen first, and then the Claustro selects the Rector. Rectors hold their office for four years before another election is held, and there is no limit to the number of re-election terms. However, only the most charismatic and respected rectors have been able to hold their office for more than two or three terms. Of those, some have been notable
Spanish scholars, such as
Basque writer
Miguel de Unamuno, Rector of the
University of Salamanca from 1901 until 1936.
Sweden Rektor is the title for the highest-ranked administrative and educational leader for an academic institution, such as a primary school, secondary school, private school, high school, college or university. The
rektors of state-run colleges and universities are formally appointed by the government, i.e. the cabinet, but upon the advice of the concerned institution's board, and usually following some sort of democratic process at the concerned institution. The adjunct of a
rektor at a university is called a
prorektor and is appointed by the institution's board. Some institutions also have
vicerektorer (vice rectors), who are appointed by the
rektor to carry out a sub-set of the ''rektor's
tasks. A vicerektor
is subordinate to the rektor
and prorektor''. In the older universities,
Uppsala university and
Lund university, the
rektor is titled
rector magnificus (men), or
rectrix magnifica (women). Younger universities have in more recent years started using the Latin honorary title in formal situations, such as in honorary speeches or graduation ceremonies. The University Chancellor of Sweden was until 2017 the title of the head of the government accrediting agency, the
National Agency for Higher Education. From 2017, this position carries the title Director General which is the usual title of the head of a government agency. The people recruited to the position have in later times always been former
rektors of a Swedish university. The position does not include leadership of a university. Universities and colleges usually have a
Universitetsdirektör or
Förvaltningschef, who is the head of the administration (i.e., the non-academic employees) and subordinate to the rectorate.
Turkey According to the latest version of the Law on Higher Education (no. 2547), the heads of the
universities in Turkey are titled as rectors () and are appointed by the
president of Turkey. The first instance of the seat of rectorship appeared in 1933, as a result of the in Turkey. The rectorship of
Istanbul University was appointed by decree in 1934, with the suggestion of the
minister of education. The rector had also served as the representative of the minister. With the Universities' Law of 1946, the rector had been directly elected from the professors with the votes of professors and ordinarius professors only. The rector could serve for two terms at most, and if the term had ended could not be re-elected. The new law with the same name in 1973 had removed the permanent election ban, however introduced that the rector could not serve more than two consecutive terms. • In the first round, an election between the faculty members used to take place and six candidates were elected. • Three of the initial candidates were elected by the
Council of Higher Education members in the second round. • Finally, the president of Turkey had appointed one of the three candidates presented by the Council. As a result of the change made by the
decree-law no. 767, the first round of the election was cancelled in 2016. However, the reports about delayed rector appointments emerged soon. The second round involving the Council was cancelled in 2018, by the decree-law no. 703. As a result of this change, the president of Turkey is the only competent authority in vetting and appointing the rectors. Prior to the institution becoming a university in 2005, the head of Liverpool Hope University College was titled "rector". The title is also used at the
University of Oxford by the
heads of college at
Lincoln College and
Exeter College. The head of Mater Ecclesiae College, the
Pontifical faculty within
St Mary's University, Twickenham, also uses the title of rector. The title of rector is also used for the ceremonial head (normally titled chancellor at British universities) of
Brunel University London and
City St George's, University of London. At
Durham University, the titular and religious head of
St Chad's College is the rector (a position held
ex officio by the
Dean of Durham Cathedral), while the academic head is the principal. Historically, the
head of Imperial College London was called the rector, until this was split into a
provost and "president and rector" in 2012. In 2014,
Alice Gast was announced as simply president, replacing
Keith O'Nions who had been "president and rector". An amendment to the university's statutes in November 2014 formally replaced the title of rector with that of president. Prior to their conversion to universities, some
polytechnics had a rector as the head of the establishment; following their transition to universities, the position of rector was retitled as vice-chancellor. Polytechnics using this title included
Central London,
East London,
Huddersfield,
Liverpool and
Sunderland. Some colleges of higher education, such as
Nene College of Higher Education, also used the title of rector prior to becoming universities. King's College, Newcastle, the Newcastle division of the then-federal University of Durham, was led by a rector from its establishment in 1937 until it became
Newcastle University in 1963, when the rector of the college became the vice-chancellor of the new university. The position of
vice-chancellor of the federal university alternated between the rector of King's College (as vice-chancellor and rector) and the warden of the Durham colleges, the head of the Durham division (as vice-chancellor and warden). At the
University of Cambridge, the officers now known as
proctors were originally (in the 13th century) called rectors.
Scotland Ancient universities In Scotland, the position of rector exists in the four
ancient universities (
St Andrews,
Glasgow,
Aberdeen and
Edinburgh) as well as at
Dundee, which took its governance systems from its early connections to the University of St Andrews. With the Universities (Scotland) Act 1889 requiring an election for the rector every three years in the
ancient universities. The rector is the third-ranking official of university governance and is elected every three years by
matriculated students at Aberdeen, Dundee, Glasgow and St Andrews, and by both the students and the staff at Edinburgh. Until the
Higher Education Governance (Scotland) Act 2016 came into force, the rector chaired meetings of the
university court, the governing body of the university; since 2016 the rector only opens and closes court meetings with the senior lay member chairing the business of the meeting. The
titular head of an ancient university in Scotland is the
chancellor, who appoints a vice-chancellor to deputise in the awarding of
degrees. The
principal of each university is, by
convention, appointed as vice-chancellor, however the position of vice-chancellor does not confer any other powers or responsibility on the principal. The authority to serve as chief executive of each university is vested in the office of principal, who holds both offices referred to as
principal and vice-chancellor.
Gordon Brown, the former
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, was
rector of the University of Edinburgh while a student there but since then most universities have amended their procedures to disqualify currently matriculated students from standing for election. , the
rector of the University of Aberdeen is
Iona Fyfe, a Scottish folk singer; the
rector of the University of Dundee is arts consultant
Keith Harris; the
rector of the University of Edinburgh is
Simon Fanshawe; the
rector of the University of Glasgow is
Ghassan Abu-Sittah; and the
rector of the University of St Andrews is Stella Maris.
High schools Some Scottish high schools and
secondary schools have a
head teacher whose official title is
rector, an example being
Bell Baxter High School in
Cupar,
Fife.
Central and Eastern Europe The rector is the head of most universities and other higher educational institutions in at least parts of Central and Eastern Europe, such as Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Romania, North Macedonia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary and Ukraine. The rector's deputies are known as "pro-rectors". Individual departments of a university (called
faculties) are headed by
deans. ==North America==