Atlantic European rock art Various different forms of late prehistoric rock art have been found in
Atlantic Europe, the coastal region that extends from the
Strait of Gibraltar up to the
British Isles. The term Atlantic rock art was popularised in the 1990s by archaeologist Richard Bradley. The art is characterised by abstract geometric motifs, most notably the
cup-and-ring motifs. The art can be found in Portugal, France, Spain,
Britain, and Ireland. Although the art is characterised by abstract motifs it is sometimes found alongside figurative carvings, such as those at
Galicia in North western Spain. Furthermore, several sites in Northern and Central
Portugal, namely at the
Côa Valley, Ponte da Góia, Abrigo da Faia rocks,
Sever do Vouga, and several locations along the
Vouga River, and
Minho River bassins, and another discovery made in Argyll in Scotland, in 2020. The carvings associated with the tradition of Atlantic rock art in Europe are often found in rural settings, in open-air landscapes and occur on boulders and outcrops. Many of these panels remain in situ, however some smaller more portable examples have been moved to museums for safe keeping. The abstract nature of many of these carvings provide us with very little information of their purpose in prehistory. However, this art form has become the topic of several excavations and studies throughout Europe in recent years. Many of these studies consider a landscape approach. The associated motifs consist of cup-marks (circular man-made depressions) often surrounded by one or more concentric rings that regularly feature an extending radial groove. Another common motif is the rosette motif which consists of a circular pattern of cup-marks. There is evidence for regional variation amongst this tradition. Many archaeologists and scholars have theorised on the purpose of the art but given its mostly abstract nature and little direct context for its presence on rock surfaces, it is difficult to form a conclusive explanation for it. A widely considered theory is that the art marks routeways and boundaries within prehistoric societies. Perhaps the most well-known landscape of Atlantic rock art in Europe is that of Galicia in north-western Spain at the Campo do Lameiro archaeological park. The majority of the carvings are situated in the Valley of the River Lérez. Over a span of 21.8 hectares hundreds of carvings can be found on the surface of rock panels in various clusters throughout the park. Along with the abstract/ geometric motifs, zoomorphs and anthropomorphs can be seen and many of these combinations form visual representations of hunting scenes. There are over 6000 examples of Atlantic art in the UK and of these over 2000 can be found in Scotland with the highest concentration found in Kilmartin Glenn, Argyll. Northern England is host to several rock art landscapes most notably in the counties of Northumberland and Durham. In recent years many conservation and recording initiatives have been undertaken in this region by archaeologists at the University of Newcastle. In Ireland the Atlantic rock art appears in clusters throughout the country, the most significant of those occur in counties Fermanagh/Donegal, Wicklow/Carlow, Louth/Monaghan, and Cork, with the highest concentration occurring in
County Kerry on the
Dingle and
Iveragh Peninsulas. During the Early Bronze Age, which lasted from
circa 2300 through to
c.1500 BCE, various depictions of weaponry were engraved onto rock surfaces across Atlantic Europe. in the north of Norway with the largest collection of hunter gatherer rock art in northern Europe. The Alta rock art collection, discovered in the 1970s, has undergone extensive study and analysis. Researchers have focused on themes like religious practices, Arctic cultural beliefs, geographical contexts, and social communication. While the interpretive framework has expanded over time, there has been little scholarly debate or disagreement. This has resulted in a relatively uniform set of interpretations that determine which explanations are considered valid or acceptable. The paper critiques how researchers use ethnographic evidence and concepts like Arctic cultural connections, religious rituals, and spiritual practices in their interpretations. It also challenges the increasingly complex theories that view rock art as a powerful tool for shaping worldviews and facilitating communication. The paper questions the scholarly drive to uncover "deeper meanings" and proposes different approaches to studying rock art. The Alta rock art encompasses all prehistoric carved and painted images found in the Alta region of Northern Norway. Created over 5,000 years, this extensive collection contains 5,500-7,000 individual pieces (depending on classification methods) with diverse subjects, artistic styles, and site locations. These works provide rich material for studying chronology, cultural groupings, artistic traditions, and stylistic developments. They also offer insights into ancient environments, available resources, technologies, and the social practices and conditions of their creators. The fundamental question remains: what was their purpose and significance? While researchers don't typically adopt the dramatic perspective of scholar Mircea Eliade (who described "primitive man" as living in constant fear of natural forces failing), modern interpretations consistently emphasize themes of negotiation with spiritual forces, communication with spirits or communities, and efforts to maintain balance, structure, and control in both the natural and social worlds. This approach frames rock art creation as driven by essential needs, making it a matter of critical importance to ancient societies.
Alpine rock art ,
Northern Italy Rock art engraved on open surfaces, rather than inside shelters or caves, was also produced in the mountainous
Alpine region during later prehistory. Found predominantly in the southern part of the Alps, in modern-day Italy and France, few examples of rock art have been identified from the northern slopes of the region, in what is now Switzerland and Germany. Many engravings have been found in the region, along with a few rock paintings (as at Abri Faravel), and as such, scholars in rock art studies have divided the known collection into between 20 and 30 "regions" of Alpine rock art, the number depending upon how neighbouring occurrences are grouped. The two most prominent concentrations of rock art in the Alps are found at
Mont Bégo in France and the valleys of Valcamonica and Valtellina in Italy, both of which far outnumber other areas for the amount of art that they contain. At Mount Bego, in southwest France, near the Italian border, over 30,000 illustrated figures have been discovered in the valleys and outliers surrounding the mountain, situated on the high-altitude slopes far above the agricultural land. Archaeologists have dated to the images to the Copper and Bronze Ages, between 2500 and 1700 BCE, because many of the figures are depicted holding daggers and halberds which are stylistically consistent with this period. Similarly, many of the images depict oxen and ploughshares, meaning that they must have been produced following the adoption of agriculture during the Neolithic. It is believed that they all date from the same period, because they are all stylistically consistent and are in a similar state of preservation. At Valcamonica and Valtellina, two lengthy neighbouring valleys in the south-centre of the Alps, archaeologists have estimated the existence of around 300,000 figures, with depictions or humans and other animals, footprints, steep-roofed buildings, wheeled carts, boats and a large number of geometric shapes, lines, spirals and crosses. Although a few of the images found in Valtellina have been tentatively suggested to be post-glacial in date due to the Palaeolithic animal style they depict, the overwhelming majority of artworks are considered to be late prehistoric. Some of the motifs, such as those of humans in an
orant posture with arms upraised in prayer or adoration, have been considered Neolithic, with others being attributed to the Copper, Bronze and Iron Ages, the latter being the most numerous. Some of the illustrations have been dated to the historic period, having been produced by the local
Camuni people (believed akin to the
Rhaetians) who lived within the
Roman Empire, and subsequently also from the Medieval period. == Preservation ==