Columbidae

is a French word that derives from the Latin , for a chick, while dove, shared with Old Norse dūfa and Gothic dubo, is from a Proto-Germanic word imitative of the cooing calls of woodpigeon and stock dove. The English dialectal word appears to derive from Latin . ==Origin and evolution==

Columbiformes is one of the most diverse non-passerine clades of neoavians, and its origins are in the Cretaceous and the result of a rapid diversification at the end of the K–Pg boundary. Whole genome analyses have found Columbiformes is the sister clade to the clade Pteroclimesites a clade consisting the orders Pterocliformes (sandgrouses) and Mesitornithiformes (mesites). The columbiform-pteroclimesitean clade, or Columbimorphae, monophyly has been supported from several studies. Taxonomy and systematics The name 'Columbidae' for the family was first used by the English zoologist William Elford Leach in a guide to the contents of the British Museum published in 1819. However, Illiger in 1811 established an older name for the family group ("Columbini") and would actually be the proper authority for Columbidae. A 2024 paper on the systematics and nomenclature of the dodo and the solitaire from Young and colleagues also provided an overview of columbid family-group nomina. They recommended recognizing three subfamilies: Columbinae (New World doves and quail-doves, and columbin doves), Claravinae (American ground-doves), and Raphinae (Old World doves and pigeons including the dodo and solitaire). A 2025 paper on the molecular phylogenetic placement of the Cuban endemic blue-headed quail-dove from Oswald and colleagues found the species to be a sister group to Columbinae, as opposed to being a true columbine or a raphine as previous authors have suggested in the past. These authors recommended that the blue-headed quail-dove should be placed in fourth monotypic subfamily, Starnoenadinae. These taxonomic issues are exacerbated by columbids not being well represented in the fossil record, with no truly primitive forms having been found to date. The genus Gerandia has been described from Early Miocene deposits in France, but while it was long believed to be a pigeon, it is now considered a sandgrouse. Fragmentary remains of a probably "ptilinopine" Early Miocene pigeon were found in the Bannockburn Formation of New Zealand and described as Rupephaps; Apart from that, all other fossils belong to extant genera. The following genus level cladogram of the Columbidae is based mainly on a study by Andrew Sweet and collaborators that was published in 2026. The study sampled 43 of the 48 extant genera. The fruit doves in the genus Ptilinopus have been split into four genera based on a study by Alice Cibois and collaborators that was published in 2014. The number of species in each genus is taken from the taxonomy published by AviList in 2025. The number of species in a genus are listed, unless it only has one species (monotypy): }} List of genera Subfamily Raphinae Oudemans, 1917 (1835) (Old World tropics doves and pigeons) • Genus Treron (green pigeons, 29 species) • Genus Chalcophaps (emerald doves, 3 species) • Genus Oena (Namaqua dove) • Genus Turtur (wood doves, 5 species) • Genus Otidiphaps (pheasant pigeon) • Genus Trugon (thick-billed ground pigeon) • Genus Caloenas (Nicobar pigeon and the extinct spotted green pigeon) • Genus Goura (crowned pigeons, 4 species) • Genus Megaloprepia (fruit doves, 2 species) • Genus Ramphiculus (fruit doves, 9 species) • Genus Alectroenas (blue pigeons, 4 species) • Genus Ptilinopus (fruit doves, 47 species) • Genus Ducula (imperial pigeons, 42 species) • Genus Hemiphaga (2 species) • Genus Lopholaimus (topknot pigeon) • Genus Gymnophaps (mountain pigeons, 4 species) • Genus Phapitreron (brown doves, 3 species) • Genus Gallicolumba (bleeding-hearts and allies, 7 species) • Genus Pampusana (13 species of which 2 recently extinct) • Genus Henicophaps (2 species) • Genus Leucosarcia (wonga pigeon) • Genus Phaps (Australian bronzewings, 3 species) • Genus Geopelia (5 species) • Genus Petrophassa (rock pigeons, 2 species) • Genus Ocyphaps (crested pigeon) • Genus Geophaps (3 species) • Genus Drepanoptila (cloven-feathered dove) • Genus Cryptophaps (sombre pigeon) • Genus †Microgoura (Choiseul crested pigeon, extinct early 20th century) • Genus Didunculus (tooth-billed pigeon) • Genus †Raphus (dodo, extinct late 17th century) • Genus †Pezophaps (Rodrigues solitaire, extinct c. 1730) Subfamily Claravinae Todd, 1913 (American ground doves) • Genus Claravis (blue ground dove) • Genus Uropelia (long-tailed ground dove) • Genus Paraclaravis (2 species) • Genus Metriopelia (4 species) • Genus Columbina (9 species) Subfamily Columbinae Illiger, 1811 (typical pigeons and doves) • Genus Geotrygon (quail-doves, 9 species) • Genus Leptotrygon (olive-backed quail-dove) • Genus Leptotila (doves, 11 species) • Genus Zentrygon (quail-doves, 8 species) • Genus Zenaida (Zenaida doves, 7 species) • Genus Reinwardtoena (cuckoo-doves, 3 species) • Genus Macropygia (cuckoo-doves, 15 species) • Genus Turacoena (cuckoo-doves, 3 species) • Genus Patagioenas (American pigeons, 17 species) • Genus Columba (Old World pigeons, 34 species of which 2 recently extinct) • Genus Aplopelia (lemon dove) • Genus Nesoenas (doves and pigeons, 3 species of which one extinct) • Genus Streptopelia (turtle doves and collared doves, 15 species) • Genus †Ectopistes (passenger pigeon; extinct 1914) • Genus Spilopelia (doves, 2 species) Species of uncertain placement • Genus Starnoenas (blue-headed quail-dove) Fossil species • Genus †Arenicolumba Steadman, 2008 • Genus †Rupephaps Worthy, Hand, Worthy, Tennyson, & Scofield, 2009 (St. Bathans pigeon, Miocene of New Zealand) • Genus †Tongoenas Steadman & Takano, 2020 (Tongan giant pigeon) (prehistoric) • Genus †Natunaornis (Viti Levu giant pigeon) (prehistoric) • Genus †Bountyphaps Worthy & Wragg, 2008 (Henderson Island pigeon) (prehistoric) • Genus †Deliaphaps De Pietri, Scofield, Tennyson, Hand, & Worthy, 2017 (Zealandian dove, Miocene of New Zealand) • Genus †Primophaps Worthy 2012 • Genus †Dysmoropelia Olson, 1975 (Saint Helena dove) (prehistoric) == Description ==

Anatomy and physiology (Streptopelia decaocto) displays the contour and flight feathers of its wings. Overall, the anatomy of Columbidae is characterized by short legs, short bills with a fleshy cere, and small heads on large, compact bodies. Like some other birds, the Columbidae have no gall bladders. Some medieval naturalists concluded they have no bile (gall), which in the medieval theory of the four humours explained the allegedly sweet disposition of doves. In fact, however, they do have bile (as Aristotle had earlier realized), which is secreted directly into the gut. The wings of most species are large, and have eleven primary feathers; pigeons have strong wing muscles (wing muscles comprise 31–44% of their body weight) and are among the strongest fliers of all birds. It was shown yet again in a 1978 experiment by Dr.Barrie J. Frost, in which pigeons were placed on treadmills; it was observed that they did not bob their heads, as their surroundings were constant. Feathers Columbidae have unique body feathers, with the shaft being generally broad, strong, and flattened, tapering to a fine point, abruptly. Body feathers have very dense, fluffy bases, are attached loosely into the skin, and drop out easily. Possibly serving as a predator avoidance mechanism, large numbers of feathers fall out in the attacker's mouth if the bird is snatched, facilitating the bird's escape. The plumage of the family is variable. Granivorous species tend to have dull plumage, with a few exceptions, whereas the frugivorous species have brightly coloured plumage. The genera Chalcophaps, Ptilinopus and Alectroenas include some of the most brightly coloured pigeons. Pigeons and doves may be sexually monochromatic or dichromatic. In addition to bright colours, some pigeon species may have crests or other ornamentation. s flying at an altitude of above sea level Flight Many Columbidae are excellent fliers due to the lift provided by their large wings, which results in low wing loading. They are highly maneuverable in flight and have a low aspect ratio due to the width of their wings, allowing for quick flight launches and ability to escape from predators, but at a high energy cost. A few species are long-distance migrants, with some populations of the European turtle dove migrating in excess of 5,000 km between northern Europe in summer and tropical Africa in winter, and the Oriental turtle dove nearly as far in eastern Asia between eastern Siberia and southern China. Size Pigeons and doves exhibit considerable variation in size, ranging in length from , and in weight from to above . The largest extant species are the crowned pigeons of New Guinea, which are nearly turkey-sized, with lengths of and weights ranging . One of the largest arboreal species, the Marquesan imperial pigeon with a length of , currently battles extinction. The extinct, flightless dodo is the largest columbid to have ever existed, with a height of about , and a range of suggested weights from , although the higher estimates are thought to be based on overweight birds. The least massive columbids belong to species in the genus Columbina; the common ground dove (Columbina passerina) which is only slightly larger than a house sparrow, weighing as little as . The dwarf fruit dove, which may measure as little as long, has a marginally smaller total length than any other species from this family. File:Nicobar Pigeon on the bar.jpg|The Nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica) is often stated to be the dodo's closest living relative. File:SNOW-PIGEON-SELA.jpg|Snow pigeon (Columba leuconota) in Sela, Arunachal Pradesh File:2019-03-17 Columba oenas, Jesmond Dene 4.jpg|The stock dove (Columba oenas) of Europe is a typical member of the Columbinae. File:2018-03-14 Columba palumbus eating Cotoneaster frigidus berries.jpg|The common wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) is common throughout Europe. This one is eating Cotoneaster frigidus berries. File:Columbina passerina.jpg|The common ground dove (Columbina passerina) is one of the smallest species in the family. File:Ducula galeata Nuku Hiva.jpg|Nuku Hiva/Marquesan imperial pigeon (Ducula galeata) File:Goura victoria LC0384.jpg|The Victoria crowned pigeon (Goura victoria) is one of the largest extant pigeons. File:Blue-headed quail dove (Starnoenas cyanocephala).JPG|The blue-headed quail-dove (Starnoenas cyanocephala) of Cuba is a relictual species with no close relatives. File:Red-eyed dove (Streptopelia semitorquata).jpg|A red-eyed dove (Streptopelia semitorquata) on the Zambezi in Zimbabwe. File:Spilopelia chinensis Zhengzhou 20220915, crop.jpg|A spotted dove (Spilopelia chinensis) in Zhengzhou, China. == Distribution and habitat ==

Pigeons and doves are distributed everywhere on Earth, having adapted to most terrestrial habitats available on the planet, except for the driest areas of the Sahara Desert, Antarctica and its surrounding islands, and the high Arctic. Some species have large natural ranges. The eared dove ranges across the entirety of South America from Colombia to Tierra del Fuego, the Eurasian collared dove has a massive (if discontinuous) distribution from Britain across Europe, the Middle East, India, Pakistan and China, and the laughing dove across most of sub-Saharan Africa, as well as India, Pakistan, and the Middle East. When including human-mediated introductions, the largest range of any species is that of the rock dove, also known as the common pigeon. This species had a large natural distribution from Britain and Ireland to northern Africa, across Europe, Arabia, Central Asia, India, the Himalayas and up into China and Mongolia. As well as the rock dove, several other species of pigeon have become established outside of their natural range after escaping captivity, and other species have increased their natural ranges due to habitat changes caused by human activity. the Caroline ground dove, restricted to two islands, Truk and Pohnpei in the Caroline Islands, and the Grenada dove, which is only found on the island of Grenada in the Caribbean. Some continental species also have tiny distributions, such as the black-banded fruit dove, which is restricted to a small area of the Arnhem Land of Australia, the Somali pigeon, found only in a tiny area of northern Somalia, and Moreno's ground dove, endemic to the area around Salta and Tucuman in northern Argentina. ==Behaviour==

Feeding (Treron sieboldii) feeding on fruit Pigeons and doves eat mainly seeds and fruit. The granivorous species typically feed on seed found on the ground, whereas the frugivorous species are more arboreal, tending to feed in trees. Frugivores are capable of clinging to branches and even hang upside down to reach fruit. '') on its nest, with one unhatched egg and one hatchling Reproduction Doves and pigeons build relatively flimsy nests, often using sticks, other vegetable matter, and other debris, which may be placed on trees, on rocky ledges, or on the ground, depending on species. The female may either build the nest, with material gathered by the male, or the male builds the nest by himself. A few species nest colonially, others nest in aggregation. and leave the nest after 25–32 days. == Status and conservation ==

While many species of pigeons and doves have benefited from human activities and have increased their ranges, many other species have declined in numbers and some have become threatened or even succumbed to extinction. The decline of the species was abrupt; in 1871, a breeding colony was estimated to contain over a hundred million birds, yet the last individual in the species was dead by 1914. Although habitat loss was a contributing factor, the species is thought to have been massively over-hunted, being used as food for slaves and, later, the poor, in the United States throughout the 19thcentury. (Zenaida graysoni) is extinct in the wild. The dodo, and its extinction, was more typical of the extinctions of pigeons in general. Like many species that colonise remote islands with few predators, it lost much of its predator avoidance behaviour, along with its ability to fly. The arrival of people, along with a suite of other introduced species such as rats, pigs, and cats, quickly spelled the end for this species and many other island species that have become extinct.--> Most of these are tropical and live on islands. All of the species are threatened by introduced predators, habitat loss, hunting, or a combination of these factors. In some areas, a lack of knowledge means the true status of a species is unknown (DD); the Negros fruit dove has not been seen since 1953, and may or may not be extinct, and the Polynesian ground dove is classified as critically endangered, as whether it survives or not on remote islands in the far west of the Pacific Ocean is unknown. Various conservation techniques are employed to prevent these extinctions, including laws and regulations to control hunting pressure, the establishment of protected areas to prevent further habitat loss, the establishment of captive populations for reintroduction back into the wild (ex situ conservation), and the translocation of individuals to suitable habitats to create additional populations. ==Domestication==

The domestic pigeon (Columba livia domestica) is a descendant of the rock dove (Columba livia) that underwent domestication, with studies suggesting domestication as early as 10 thousand years ago. Domestic pigeons have long been a part of human culture; doves were important symbols of the goddesses Innana, Asherah, and Aphrodite, and revered by the early Christian, Islamic and Jewish religions. Domestication of pigeons led to significant use of homing pigeons for communication, including war pigeons, such as the 32 pigeons who were awarded the Dickin Medal for "brave service" to their country, in World War II. The barbary dove is a smaller species of domestic columbid that was kept as a source of food. As a result of selection for tame individuals who would not escape their cages, they lack a survival instinct and cannot survive release. == See also ==